1061 
57 1 



The Transfer Effects of Practice 
IN Cancellation Tests 



MELVTN ALBERT MARTIN. A. M. 



REPRINT OF 

ARCHIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY 
isro. 32 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAt. FLTLiFILMENT OF THE 

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF JPHILOSOPHY 

IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY. 

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



NEW YORK 
1016 



The Transfer Effects of practice 
IN Cancellation Tests 



MELVIN ALBERT MARTIN. A. M. 



REPRINT OF 

ARCHIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY 

NO. 32 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FUI.FILMENT OF THE 

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OFDOCTOR O^ Pmi^OSOPHY 

IN THE FACUI-iTY OF PHlLOSOPli i: , 

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



NE'W YORK 
1015 






Gift 

Th" Uuiverslty 
KAR ♦ 1916 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Introduction 

Chapter I. Discussion of Previous Investigations 1 

Chapter II. Description and Discussion of Materials 

and Procedure 23 

Section 1. Preliminary Investigations 23 

A. Reaction Time. 

B. Cancellation. 

C. Cancellation. 

Section 2. The Present Investigation 24 

A. Practice Material. 

B. Test Material. 

C. Procedure. 

Section 8. Treatment of Data 28 

A. Data of the Practice Series. 

B. Data of the Test Series. 

Chapter III. Interpretation of Results 46 

Section 1. In Terms of Speed and Accuracy of 

Performance 47 

Section 2. When Corrected for Errors 62 

Section 3. Summary of Results 65 

Section 4. General Conclusions 67 



INTRODUCTION 

The problem of Formal Discipline, or the transfer effects 
of training, or the spread of special training, is no longer the 
question whether the special training of a function or a func- 
tion-group increases its efficiency with all sorts of materials 
and in all kinds of situations, but it is, rather, under what 
conditions, to what extent, and in what direction, may we 
expect training of a special kind to produce transfer effects. 
In planning the present investigation the author had these 
questions in mind. No one realizes more than he the difficul- 
ties involved in conducting and completing such an experiment 
under conditions that make for scientific accuracy. Such a 
research requires quite a large number of subjects divided into 
two groups — one for the control, to determine the improve- 
ment in the tests themselves, and one for practice. To secure 
a sufficient number of subjects for the control is compara- 
tively easy, but to secure a suitable practice group and hold 
them to systematic and prolonged practice under conditions 
that favor a maximum of measurable improvement from prac- 
tice period to practice period is not an easy task. 

The investigation is purposely limited to a narrow field in 
order to avoid possible sources of error due to complicating 
the procedure as well as the results by attempting too much 
in one experiment. It is a straightforward attempt to discover 
the transfer effects of prolonged practice in cancelling in one 
situation upon cancelling in other situations. The materials 
in both the practice series and the test series, as well as the 
methods of procedure were such as to insure exact quantita- 
tive scoring; and both groups of subjects were sufficiently large 
to prevent chance errors and individual variations from invali- 
dating the results. 

Chapter I contains a survey and criticism of previous in- 
vestigations, with suggestions concerning the necessity and im- 
portance of standardizing procedure in this field of research. 
In chapter II the materials and procedure used in the present 
investigation are presented and discussed. This chapter con- 



tains also the data of both the practice and the tests, with a 
brief discussion of the same. Chapter III deals with the trans- 
fer effects. The results of the experiment are interpreted and 
explained and general conclusions drawn. 

The writer gratefully acknowledges assistance from sev- 
eral sources. He is indebted to Professors R. S. Woodworth, 
J. McK. Cattell, E. L. Thorndike, and Dr. A. T. Poffenberger, 
Jr., for many helpful suggestions and criticisms; and to the 
Hebrew Orphans Home, of New York City, for the services of 
the subjects and for the use of the school rooms of that insti- 
tution. To the subjects themselves he is indebted for unfailing 
devotion to the work involved, especially in the practice. 



VI 



THE TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE 
IN CANCELLATION TESTS 



CHAPTER I. 

DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 

Ever since James announced the results of his experiment 
on the transfer effects of memory-training, and Thorndike and 
Woodworth published their conclusions based on the results of 
an elaborate series of transfer experiments, this field of re- 
search has proved a fruitful source of experimentation. While 
it is true that James found no evidence of transfer, yet, it is 
to James we must make acknowledgement for the inception of 
investigations which have already modified our psychological 
and educational concepts, and which bid fair to revolutionize 
our educational procedure- 

However much investigators may disagree as to whether 
special training is general in its effects, they are agreed that 
there is no function which through special training is made 
equally effective in all sorts of situations. It is hardly neces- 
sary to mention that conclusions concerning transfer based on 
experiments on cross-education should be rejected, for Pro- 
fessor Thorndike has already pointed out that "they have been 
improperly used as evidence on our question."^ 

In James's^ experiment on the transfer effects of memory 
training there was not only no evidence of transfer, but not 
even of improvement in the tests themselves. This, together 
with the fact that no control group was used, invalidates 
James's conclusions. Peterson^' repeated this experiment with 
nine subjects, using two in the practice and seven in the con- 
trol. The results indicate clearly the insufficiency of the num- 
ber of subjects, as well as the faulty method of conducting the 
practice. In the training series one subject lost about as much 

'Thorndike, Educational Psychology, 1913, Vol. 2, p. 365. 
^William James, Principles of Psychology, 1908, Vol. 1, pp. 667-668 
'Psychological Review, 1912, 19, 491-492. 

1 



2 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

as the other gained, and yet gained more in the tests. The two 
together, however, gained in the tests more than twice as 
much as the control group. In the training the two subjects 
alternated as experimenter and subject, one training with "The 
Coming of Arthur" and the other with "Guinevere." Thus, 
while each subject was primarily trained in memorizing one of 
the poems, he was incidentally trained with the other. These 
conditions seemed to facilitate the progress of one subject and 
interfere with the other; the latter subject made greater prog- 
ress in the tests. Surely the results of such an experiment 
cannot be accepted as valid. 

The best known and most elaborate of the earlier investi- 
gations of the transfer effects of memory-training was that 
of Ebert and Meumann.^ They sought an answer to the follow- 
ing question : "Is there a general memory function which can 
be perfected upon any material involving the use of memory, 
or, on the other hand, must we posit related or unrelated spe- 
cial memories"? Six subjects were tested with a wide range 
of material involving the use of memory- They were then 
trained in memorizing four lists of twelve nonsense syllables 
a day for eight days. After which they were retested with 
a series of tests similar to those used before the practice. 
There was another eight days of training with nonsense syl- 
lables, followed by a third series of tests. The results indicate 
considerable improvement in both the training and the tests. 
The authors conclude that "there are no doubt related memory 
functions which can be perfected upon any material involving 
the use of memory, the development taking place proportion- 
ately to the degree of relationship between the practice and the 
test material." In addition to certain irregularities in con- 
ducting one of the tests, the validity of every test has been 
called in question. There is no guarantee that the three test 
series were of equal difficulty. Too few subjects were used — 
only six — and in three out of the seven tests in immediate 
learning there were only two. However, the fact that no con- 
trol group was used is sufficient to invalidate the conclusions 
of the authors. Dearborn- sought to remedy this defect by re- 
peating the tests only, and concluded as follows: "The re- 
sults indicate that a considerable part of the improvement 

'Ueber einige Grundfragen der Psychologie der Uebungsphanomene im 
Bereiche des Gedachtnisses. Archiv. fur die gesamte Psychologie, 
1904, 4, 1-232. 

^W. F. Dearborn, Psychological Bulletin, 1906, 6, 44. 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. 3 

found must be attributed to direct practice in the test-series, 
and not to any 'spread' of improvement from the practice ser- 
ies proper. There is further, at times, lack of correlation be- 
tween the amount of improvement made in the practice and 
that made in the test series ; occasionally a larger percentage 
of gain is made in the latter than in the practice itself. This 
again indicates the presence of direct practice in the test- 
series. Some at least of the remaining general improvement 
found is to be explained simply in terms of orientation, 
attention, and changes in the technique of learning. These 
results seem to render unnecessary the hypothesis proposed 
by Ebert and Meumann to account for the large extent of the 
general influence of special practice, which their experiments 
seem to indicate." 

The most elaborate of the more recent investigations of 
the transfer effects of memory-training is that made by W. G. 
Sleight,^ of England. The general plan was as follows : Three 
series of ten memory tests were prepared in advance, and as 
far as possible the three series were equally difficult. The sub- 
jects were divided into four groups. One group took the tests 
only, and was known as the control group, or group number 
one ; the other three were trained in memorizing. Group num- 
ber two was trained with poetry; group number three with 
arithmetical tables, and distances from London to the chief 
towns of England, etc.; and group number four with prose 
substance. The training occupied thirty minutes a day, four 
days in a week, over a period of six weeks. The four groups 
were tested before the practice began, and again at the end 
of three weeks, and finally at the conclusion of the practice. 
Sleight says: "Care was taken that each group should work 
under similar conditions, and that the group which underwent 
no memory training was never allowed to have the impression 
that it was in any way handicapped or under conditions not 
similar to those of the others." The tests were as follows : 

1. Points in Circles; an adaptation of a test used by 
McDougall and Burt. 

2. Dates. Two series, each consisting of six dates and 
their corresponding events, were repeated by the subjects 
after the experimenter a given number of times. The event 
was then read out, and the subjects wrote the date. 

3. Nonsense Syllables. The syllables were printed in 

^British Journal of Psychology, 1911, 4, 386-457. 



4 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

white chalk upon a blackboard disc which revolved at a con- 
stant rate behind a screen in which there was a rectangular 
opening through which the exposure was made. Each of the 
eight couplets was exposed five times, the subjects repeating 
them aloud as they appeared, with emphasis upon the second 
syllable. The experimenter repeated the first syllable of each 
pair and the subjects wrote the associated syllable. 

4. Poetry. A stanza of from eight to twelve lines was 
read to the class; after which the group repeated each line 
after the experimenter. After several such repetitions (Sleight 
does not say how many), the subjects wrote what they could 
remember. This was covered and the stanza given a few 
more repetitions, followed by another attempt to reproduce 
it in writing. The correct items in each attempt constituted 
the test result. 

5. Literal Prose. The method of procedure in this test 
was the same as that in the poetry test; the repetitions being 
for the first attempt six, and for the second, three. 

6. Prose Substance. The selection was read twice to the 
subjects ; after which they were told to write the substance. 

7. Map Test. A large map of the world was exposed. 
Each subject had a corresponding outline map on his desk. 
The experimenter as he indicated a position on the wall map 
would announce its name. The wall map was then covered, 
the name announced, and the subjects required to locate with 
a cross the position on their own maps. Forty positions were 
used ; the first sixteen being given out two at a time, and the 
remaining twenty-four, three at a time. 

8. Dictation. A prose selection divided into intelligible 
and grammatically complete portions, beginning with eight 
and increasing gradually to nineteen words. Each portion 
was dictated once. The subjects immediately wrote what 
they remembered. 

9. Letters. Consonants only were used. There were 16 
series; the first and second contained four letters each; the 
third and fourth five letters each ; the fifth, sixth, seventh, and 
eighth, six letters each ; the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth, 
seven letters each ; and the remaining four, eight letters each. 
Each series was dictated once, the subjects immediately re- 
producing it in writing. 

10. Names. Forty-four common Christian names and 
surnames were used, dictated first in two series of two pairs 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. 5 

each, then in eight series of three pairs each, and lastly in 
four series of four pairs each. After the experimenter had 
read two pairs, or three pairs, or four pairs, he repeated a 
surname and the subjects wrote down the corresponding 
Christian name. The names were not given in the order in 
which they were first read. The subject's score was deter- 
mined by the number of correct names. 

In only two of the ten tests were errors scored, and these 
were arbitrarily penalized. Attention is called to the following 
precautions used in giving the tests : 

1. All answers were written. 

2. Plenty of time was allowed for every answer. 

3. No test was begun or carried on unless every subject 
appeared to be giving attention. 

4. Every unfamiliar test was preceded by a short practice. 
The subjects were 84 Sixth Standard girls of average age 12 
years, 8 months. 

Sleight says that no attempt was made to estimate numeri- 
cally the direct effect of the practice, because the conditions 
under which the practice took place did not admit of this. He 
simply assumes that improvement occurred. The three kinds 
of practice were conducted orally. In training with poetry 
the experimenter would read a line and the subjects would 
repeat it after him. From 20 to 30 lines were used in this 
way each day until the average child could repeat them without 
help. The same procedure was used in practicing with arith- 
metical tables. In the training with prose substance the se- 
lection was read twice to the subjects who then reproduced 
the substance in writing. In the final results Sleight indicates 
three scales of certainty of significance: First, those where 
the superiority or inferiority of a practice group is at least 
five times the probable error; second, where the difference is 
at least three times the probable error; and third, where the 
difference is between two and three times the probable error. 
The remaining numbers he considers of no significance 
whatever. According to this method of determining the signi- 
ficance of the results, the practice groups show neither superi- 
ority nor inferiority to the control group in four tests : Dates, 
Poetry, Letters, and Names. In the other tests there are some 
significant differences; in some cases positive, in other cases 
negative. The significant cases are indicated in the following 
table, or Table A. 



6 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

TABLE A. 

Superi- 
ority over 
Practice Groups Tests Control P.E. 

Poetry Nons. Sylls 66 11 

Prose Subst -22 11 

Map Test 50 14 

Dictation -32 12 

Tables Points in Circles 48 18 

Nons. Sylls 85 11 

Prose Subst. Literal Prose 21 11 

Prose Subst 31 11 

An examination of Table A shows that the Poetry Practiced 
have a superiority in the Test with Nonsense Syllables, and 
in the Map Test; and an inferiority in the Tests with Prose 
Substance, and Dictation. The Tables Practiced have a superi- 
ority with the Test Points in Circles, and Nonsense-Syllables. 
The Prose Substance Practiced have a superiority in the Tests 
with Prose-Substance, and Literal Prose. 

A short time after the completion of the above investiga- 
tion Sleight conducted a somewhat similar experiment with 
Women Students of the average age 18-19. There were four 
groups as before. Group number one took the tests only, while 
groups 2, 3, 4, practiced with Poetry, Tables, and Prose-Sub- 
stance, respectively. Instead of ten tests there were only 
six. They were as follows: 

1. Dates. A series of ten dates, each with its associated 
event was repeated six times, after which the subjects repro- 
duced the dates as the events were announced. 

2. Nonsense Syllables. The procedure was the same as 
that used in the first experiment. However, there were twelve 
couplets instead of eight. 

3. Poetry. The subjects repeated after the experimenter 
line by line a stanza containing about eighty words. The repe- 
titions were preceded by one complete reading of the poem by 
the experimenter. 

4. Prose (Literal). One complete reading of a prose ex- 
tract by the experimenter was followed by four repetitions 
on the part of the subjects according to the method used with 
the poetry. 

5. Prose-Substance. A prose extract was read twice by 
the experimenter. The subjects then reproduced the substance 
in writing. 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. 7 

6. Letters. This test differed from the Letter Test used 
in the first experiment in that it was extended to nine letters 
at one dictation. 

The training was carried on for twelve consecutive days 
except Sunday, for half-an-hour each day. After which the 
second series of tests was given. The training differed from 
that of the first experiment. Selections of verse were handed 
to the subjects of group number two, and they were told to 
memorize for thirty minutes by whatever method they pleased. 
A similar plan was followed with group number three. The 
material used included population, import and export tables, 
coinage systems, and other similar data of a somewhat irreg- 
ular form. In the training with prose substance the proced- 
ure was the same as that in the first experiment, except in the 
length and difficulty of the selections. The results which 
Sleight regards as significant are presented in Table B. 

TABLE B. 

Superi- 
ority over 
Practice Groups Tests Control P.E. 

Poetry Nons. Sylls 33 13 

Poetry 33 lb 

Tables Dates 59 24 

Prose Subst. Nons. Sylls -62 13 

Prose Subst oZ rfi 

Letters -27 1^ 

The significant results in the two experiment are summed 
up in Table C. This will enable the reader at a glance to com- 
pare them. 

TABLE C. 

Younger Group Older Group 

Superi- Superi- 

Practice ority over ^"^^.^^^^tj i:^ 

Groups Tests Control. P.E. Tests Control. P.E. 

Poetry Nons. Sylls.... 66 11 Nons. Sylls 33 13 

Prose Subst.... -22 11 Poetry 33 16 

Tables Nons. Sylls.... 85 11 Dates 59 24 

Prose Subst. Literal Prose.. 21 11 Prose Subst.... 52 31 

Prose Subst.... 31 11 Letters -27 13 

Nons. Sylls -62 13 

Sleight proceeds to interpret these results and the differ- 
ences in the transfer effects between the two experiments 



8 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

by using the introspections of the older subjects. The Poetry 
Practiced in both experiments have a superiority in the Tests 
with Nonsense Syllables. While the method of training dif- 
fered, the method of testing was the same. The element of 
rhythm was emphasized, for in repeating the syllables the 
accent was on the second syllable of the couplet. With the 
younger group poetry training interfered with the Prose- 
Substance Test, and with the older group failed to affect it. 
This was probably due to the fact that the method of training 
the younger subjects emphasized rhythm more than the in- 
dividual methods used by the older group. This is shown in 
the superiority of the younger group in the Test with Nonsense 
Syllables, which is 66, with a probable error of 11, while for 
the older group it is only 33, with a probable error of 13. Any 
tendency to apply rhythm to the reproduction of the gist of 
a prose passage would very likely cause interference. With 
the older group training with poetry facilitated the test with 
poetry, but failed to affect it with the younger group. This 
may have been due to the fact that while the method of testing 
was the same for the two groups, the methods of training 
were different. Sleight says that the poetry used in the prac- 
tice was chosen for its simplicity, while that in the tests was 
not so chosen, some of it being unnecessarily difficult. He men- 
tions other facts which probably "led to a different distribu- 
tion of attention." 

The Tables used with the younger group contained the 
element of rhythm, while those used with the older group did 
not. This together with the fact that the method of training 
the younger group admitted of emphasizing rhythm, while 
with the older group each subject memorized the tables as 
she pleased, probably accounts for the fact that the Tables 
Practiced younger group has a superiority with Nonsense 
Syllables while the older Tables Practiced group seems to be 
unaffected in this test. On the other hand, the older group 
has a superiority in the Dates Test, while the younger group 
appears unaffected. According to Sleight the difference lies in 
the fact that the older group instead of making use of rhythm 
as the younger group did, employed a special kind of visualiz- 
ing power in the practice with the tables which they were able 
to use in the Dates Test. 

Practice with prose substance had a positive effect upon 
the Prose-Substance Test with both groups. However, with 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. 9 

three other tests there was a difference. With the younger 
group Nonsense Syllables were unaffected, while with the older 
group there was interference. After examining the introspec- 
tions of the older group Sleight reaches the conclusion that 
the interference was caused by the strongly contrasted feel- 
ing-tone accompanying the exercise, while with the younger 
group this feeling-tone was absent. He says : "One was audi- 
torially presented, the other visually; one consisted of con- 
nected logical speech, the other of disconnected meaningless 
words; one was arhythmic, the other rhythmic." In spite of 
the fact that the older group has an inferiority of 27, with a 
probable error of 13 in the test with Letters, Sleight concludes 
thus: "With regard to other subjects, the group practicing 
prose substance reproduction remains in the same position it 
occupied in the first cross-section." It seems to the writer that 
the differences in age of the two groups, together with the 
fact that the methods of practice and the methods of conduct- 
ing two of the tests were very different, are sufficient to 
account for the differences in results between the two groups. 
Sleight is to be commended for conceiving and executing a 
memory experiment so elaborate. No one appreciates more 
than the writer the many difficulties involved. Although the 
conclusions may be true, yet one would feel surer of them if 
the practice had been conducted under measurable conditions 
and identical methods had been used in both investigations. It 
is always hazardous to leave it to subjects to practice as they 
please. Some of his conclusions are very interesting. They 
may be summed up as follows : 

1. Specific memory-training is specific in its results. 

2. In some cases practice precludes new adjustments. 

3. There is no general memory function which can be 
sharpened upon any material. 

4. Differences in the midst of great similarity in the 
mental processes involved may lead to a loss of "Transfer" 
or even to reciprocal interference. 

G. C. Fracker^ sought to discover the transfer effects of 
memory-training in an ingenious and unique experiment by so 
arranging the test series and the practice series "that the 
elements concerned in the transference might be determined 
by analysis of the final results." He had twelve subjects — 

^Psychological Review, Monograph 38, 56-102. 1908. 



10 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

eight in the practice group and four in the control. The two 
groups were tested as follows : 

1. Memorizing stanzas of poetry. 

2. Memorizing the order of four shades of gray according 
to the method used in the practice series. 

3. Memorizing the four intensities of sound used in the 
practice series, but in a series of nine instead of ten. 

4. Memorizing the four grays used in the second test, but 
in a series of nine. 

5. Memorizing four tones (major chord on piano) pre- 
sented according to the method of the practice series. 

6. Reproduction of nine geometrical forms exposed all at 
once on a card for ten seconds. 

7. Reproduction of nine two-place numbers in their order 
after one hearing lasting 13.5 seconds. 

8. Memory of extent of arm movements. 

The practice consisted in memorizing four different sound 
intensities of the same tuning-fork. The four intensities 
were presented in a certain order, each intensity lasting a half- 
second, with an interval of a half-second before the next in- 
tensity was presented, and so on until the series of four had 
been presented. Then followed an interval of four seconds, 
after which the four intensities were presented as before except 
in a different order. During the next interval of four seconds 
the subject had to recall the order of the first four intensities 
presented; then followed another presentation of the four in- 
tensities in a still different order; after which the subject 
recalled, during the interval of four seconds, the order of the 
presentation in the second series. Thus the training pro- 
ceeded. One subject took 3600, six took each about 3000, while 
one took only six hundred of these trials. The two groups 
were then re-tested with the eight tests used before the prac- 
tice began. 

This investigation has been thoroughly analyzed and dis- 
cussed by Sleight,^ in England, and Thorndike' in this country. 
Between the two, the possibihties of criticism have been so 
exhausted that hardly anything is left to the writer except to 
indicate the defects pointed out by them. Thorndike, by omit- 
ting from consideration two subjects of the practice group — 
one who did worse at the end of the training, and one who 

^British Journ. of Psychology, 1911, 4, 395-398. 
'Educational Psychology, 1913, Vol. 2, 393-396. 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. H 

trained only two days — reaches the conclusion that "on the 
whole it seems safe to say that a gain in the peculiar ability 
to grasp the order of four un-named facts by naming them or 
otherwise, and to hold them while reporting a similar previous 
set and grasping another, carries over from sound intensities 
to pitches and grays to half of its own amount and improves 
the grasping and holding of a series of nine grays, forms or 
numbers to one-fifth of its own amount— all the tests being 
subject to the same general conditions of a laboratory experi- 
ment." Attention is called also to the fact that the two ob- 
servers mentioned made great gains in the test series most 
closely allied to the practice. 

Sleight calls attention to several irregularities, and espe- 
cially to the fact that the withdrawal of subject number five, 
who made rather spectacular gains in six of the tests, reduces 
the average percentage of improvement of the trained over the 
untrained from 19 and 10, to 13 and 10, in the test with the nine 
grays. He points out also the fact that by omitting the sub- 
ject of the control group who showed a large retrogression in 
some of the tests, the practice group has a decided superiority 
in only two tests— the four grays and the four tones. The 
facts pointed out plainly indicate the insufliciency of the num- 
ber of subjects used, and, consequently, the unreliability of 
some of Fracker's conclusions. On the basis of his subjects' 
introspections Fracker concludes as follows : "We are able to 
say that transference depends upon the nature of the imagery 
employed in the practice rather than upon any other factor." 
"If in the mind of the observer, the imagery is capable of 
adjustment to different tasks, it can be used in both improve- 
ment and transference, for the elements of the training act 
are thereby made the same as those of the test act. If it is 
adapted, in the mind of the observer, to the training task only, 
it may assist in improvement, but it may interfere with trans- 
ference." 

Mr. W. H. Winch, of England, has made several experi- 
ments on the problem of transfer. Most of them deal with 
memory functions. Since none of them is satisfactory, and 
so many are similar, a discussion of the more typical and im- 
portant will suffice. One^ of the first has to do with the effect 
of memorizing poetry upon rote memory for historical passages 
and descriptions about places. Although the practice was very 

^British Journ. of Psychol., 1908, 2, 284-293. 



12 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

brief — from forty to sixty minutes plus the time for repro- 
duction — there was considerable improvement. In the final 
tests the practice group gained much more than the control 
group. However, it should be borne in mind that it was rote 
memorizing in both the practice and the tests. 

In another experiment' Winch investigated the transfer 
effects of training in rote memory upon substance memory. 
The practice group was trained 20 minutes a day for three 
days — one day in each successive week — in rote memory. The 
control group was occupied during the same period in drawing 
difficult geometrical designs. The two groups were then re- 
tested with prose substance. The practice group gained 21 
per cent, and the control group 10 per cent, in the tests, while 
the practice group gained 13 per cent, in the training. Winch 
arbitrarily assumes that 2 per cent, of this was due to growth, 
and concludes as follows: "About as much or more improve- 
ment reckoned in percentages, as has been made in the practice 
medium itself — rote memory for meaningless things — has 
been transferred to substance memory." The resijlts are as- 
tonishing when one considers the very limited amount of train- 
ing the practice group received. In the tests less than six 
lines of very simple prose was read three times to the subjects. 
This would constitute rote memory for many of the subjects. 
Then, too, scoring such tests accurately is always difficult. A|; 
least two or more disinterested judges ought to score such 
material independently. Such an experiment, instead of es- 
tablishing anything conclusive about transfer, rather accen- 
tuates the importance of greater care in conceiving and con- 
ducting a transfer experiment. The very fact that the superi- 
ority of the practice group is about the same as its improve- 
ment in the training series, together with the fact that very 
simple test material was read three times to the subjects, leads 
one to suspect that the function tested was the function 
trained. With another group Winch made a somewhat similar 
experiment. Instead of one practice period in each of three 
weeks, there was one in each of thirteen weeks. The superiority 
of the practice group was only 6 per cent. Taking the two ex- 
periments together, one is inclined to say that the more prac- 
tice there is in rote memory the less improvement there is in 
substance memory. 

Winch also investigated the transfer effects of practice in 

'Ibid., 1909-1910, 3, 386-405. 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. 13 

substance memory upon productive imagination with school 
boys of average age 13 years, four months.^ The practice con- 
sisted in giving the substance of short stories which the sub- 
jects had studied visually for five minutes. The tests in pro- 
ductive imagination consisted in producing a story which in- 
cluded certain words given to the subjects. The average im- 
provement in the prose substance practice was 37 per cent., 
while the superiority of the practice group in producing stories 
from the words given was 15 per cent. Winch concludes : "We 
know then that an improvement in imagination has resulted 
from an improvement in memory due to practice; but we do 
not know what percentage of the improvement in memory due 
to practice has been transferred." In a second experiment of 
this kind with school girls of average age 12 years and eleven 
months the practice group trained until it ceased to improve 
and gave evidence of being tired of the work. The results in- 
dicate an inferiority of 12 per cent, on the part of the practice 
group, which leads Winch to conclude as follows: "The view 
that memory can be overtrained and thus have prejudicial 
results on imaginative work is confirmed." He holds that there 
is a community of function between substance memory and 
productive imagination, and yet insists that a limited amount 
of training in the practice has a positive effect, while over- 
training has a negative effect. Scoring in such experiments 
is not only very difficult but often accompanied by a constant 
error. He says also that the teacher who administered the 
tests and exercises in the second experiment "was a strong 
believer in the cultivation of memory functions, and was not 
aware that I intended to endeavor to produce a decline in the 
inventive function." The very fact that Winch endeavored to 
bring about certain results in the second experiment may have 
influenced him in the selection of the material, in the proced- 
ure, and in the scoring. If three competent judges had scored 
the tests in both experiments without knowing to which group 
a subject belonged, the results might have been different. It 
seems rather strange that a small amount of practice should 
have produced a superiority of 15 per cent., and much practice 
an inferiority of 12 per cent. It will be recalled that in another 
experiment three practice periods produced a superiority of 
13 per cent., and in a similar experiment 13 practice periods 
caused a superiority of 6 per cent. Surely no one is justified 

^British Journ. of Psychol, 1911, 4, 95-125. 



14 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

in venturing a conclusion on the basis of these experiments, 
except to point out the need of greater caution. 

The most comprehensive and influential of the earlier in- 
vestigations of transfer was made by Thorndike and Wood- 
worth.^ They examined: 

1. The influence of certain special training in the esti- 
mation of magnitudes on the ability to estimate magnitudes 
of the same general sort. 

2. The influence of training in observing words containing 
combinations of letters or some other characteristics, on the 
general ability to observe words. 

3. The influence of special training in memorizing on the 
general ability to memorize. 

In a part of these investigations the authors made use of 
for the first time a control group. Their results and conclu- 
sions were so radical that widespread interest in the problem 
was aroused, and, as a consequence, many investigations were 
inaugurated. Possibly the most significant and striking part 
of their conclusions is to be found in these words: "Improve- 
ment in any single mental function rarely brings about equal 
improvement in any other function, no matter how similar, for 
the working of every mental function-group is conditioned by 
the nature of the data in each particular case." In his recent 
survey of the literature on the problem of transfer, Professor 
Thorndike has this to say: "The change is simply the neces- 
sary result upon the second function of the alteration of those 
of its factors which were elements of the first function. Train- 
ing is not totally general; neither is it totally specialized."- 

One of the most interesting experiments in connection with 
this problem is the one on the perception of illusions by Judd.^ 
The method was that of the Miiller-Lyer Illusion. There were 
two observers, one of whom was Judd, who says he "was trained 
somewhat irregularly and with a background of abstract 
knowledge and expectation." He practiced with a figure 54mm. 
long, oblique lines at 90^ with each other, keeping the stand- 
ard on the right, both figures being held in a horizontal posi- 
tion. The iflusion which was 44.8 mm. (i. e-, this was the 
judged length) at the first trial disappeared after 980 trials, 
"not by any process of judgment or of indirect correction, but 

^Psychological Review, 1901, 8, 247-261, 384-395, 553-564. 
^Educational Psychology, 1913, vol. 2, 359. 
^Psychol. Review, 1902, 9, 27-39. 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. 15 

by coming to look differently than it did at first." In the test 
before practice the illusion of figure 54mm., 45°, was 45.1mm., 
after practice, 53.0mm. With figure 68mm., 90°, before prac- 
tice 58.7mm., after practice, 67.3mm. In these tests it should 
be remembered that the figures were kept in a horizontal 
position with the standard on the right. Again using figure 
54mm., 90°, 175 determinations were made with the standard 
on the left. At first the illusion was almost as strong as in 
the beginning of the practice series. However, the curve rose 
rapidly, the illusion not quite disappearing with the 175th 
trial, "thus indicating clearly," says Judd, "the transfer of 
practice." Turning the figures into a vertical position with the 
standard above, and again with the standard below, gave al- 
most perfect results in 80 trials. A comparison was made also 
between the standard 54mm., 90°, and a simple straight line 
placed somewhat below and to the left. Judd insists "that in 
spite of the varying conditions there was a transfer of prac- 
tice." Observer E. was especially prepared for a study of the 
inversion of the standard figure. He was tested with ngure 
53mm., 90°, the standard being on the left. The illusion was 
45.6mm. E. then practiced with figure 68mm., 45°, with the 
standard on the right. After 750 trials he was again tested 
with figure 53mm., 90°, the standard at this time being on the 
right. The illusion was 50.4mm. After the whole practice 
series of 950 trials was completed, the illusion having not quite 
disappeared, he was tested again with figure 53mm., 90°, the 
standard being on the left, as in the original test. Professor 
Judd at this point emphasizes the fact that "E. did not know 
anything about the disappearance of the illusion in the prac- 
tice series, and that no information was given him in regard 
to the change in figure or the difference in position of the 
standard hne. The results were astonishing. The illusion was 
41mm., and not even 1500 trials made any marked change in 
it." Judd says : "In spite of change in the length of the lines 
perceived, and in spite of a change in the degree of obhquity 
of the additional lines, and, finally, in spite of a new arrange- 
ment of the figures, the effects of the practice were obviously 
carried over to the new conditions. Furthermore, it is evi- 
dent from the curve that the observer started on this second 
series of measurements with a thoroughly established habit 
of interpretation. The subject who had cultivated in a purely 
empirical way this fixed mode of interpretation, misapplied it, 



16 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

to be sure, and by this misapplication of the mode of interpre- 
tation be increased the strength of the illusion under the new 
conditions." 

Scholkow and Judd' sought to discover what effect an under- 
standing of the principle of refraction would have upon prac- 
tice in hitting a target placed under water at different depths. 
One group of boys in grades 5 and 6 practiced with such knowl- 
edge, while another practiced without it. When the target 
was twelve inches under water, both groups did equally well. 
However, when the depth was changed to four inches the in- 
formed group readily adjusted themselves, while the unin- 
formed group was much confused, their errors being per- 
sistent. It is evident that practice in hitting a target at a 
depth of 12 inches caused facilitation in the one case and inter- 
ference in the other when the depth was changed. 

Kline- tested seventeen subjects in marking parts of speech 
in English prose. Eight of these subjects were retained as a 
control group, while nine were trained in cancelling e's and t's, 
from 30 to 45 minutes daily, for fourteen days. The time- 
limit method was used, the scores being in number marked 
per minute. The group made considerable improvement, the 
gains ranging from 31 per cent, to 168 per cent, in the number 
marked per minute. When the two groups were retested, both 
made gains, but the control group gained the more. In other 
words the practice caused interference in the tests. Of all the 
stimuli presented in the practice situation, only e's and t's were 
to be cancelled, while such stimuli as parts of speech were to 
be neglected. In the test situation the conditions were reversed ; 
the stimuli to be neglected in the practice situation were now 
to be cancelled, while the stimuli determining the cancelling in 
the practice situation were now to be neglected. Kline offers 
the following explanation : "The meaning of the relatively in- 
ferior work of the practice group is best made out from the 
reports of the members of the group. One says: (1) 'In 
crossing out parts of speech one always had to think what part 
of speech the word was.' (2) 'The crossing out of the letters 
became a habit and instead of crossing out words one wanted 
to cross out e's and t's. These seemed to be seen so much more 
clearly than the parts of speech.' Another writes, 'The prac- 
tice with e's and t's hindered me in dealing with the parts of 

'Educational Review, 1908, 36, 28-42. 

'Bulletin of the State Normal School, Duluth, Minn., Feb., 1909. 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. 17 

speech. I think it was because I was accustomed to looking 
for e's and t's and the tendency was to cross out those letters 
rather than the parts of speech.' " 

Coover and Angell^ tested four subjects in discriminating 
shades of gray, each test consisting of thirty-five judgments, 
made on three separate days. Three other subjects took the 
tests also, but made their judgments on two separate days. 
The four subjects were trained in discriminating sound-inten- 
sities for seventeen days, over a period of fifty-seven days, 
making forty judgments a day. In the tests the judgments 
were given in the categories of "lighter," "darker," "like," and 
"undecided." In the training the judgments were made in 
terms of "louder," "softer," "like," and "doubtful." At the 
conclusion of the training the control group of three and the 
practice group of four were re-tested in discriminating shades 
of gray. Results are given in per cents. The practice group 
gained 32 per cent, in right judgments, while the control group 
lost 7 per cent. About all that one can make out of these re- 
sults is that the practice group did a little better in judging 
differences of brightness after training in judging differences 
of sound-intensities, while the control group did worse in the 
second seventy judgments in discriminating brightness than 
in the first seventy. How reliable the figures are is not stated. 
The authors conclude as follows : "That efficiency of sensible 
discrimination acquired by training with sound stimuli has 
been transferred to the efficiency of discriminating brightness 
stimuli, and that the factors in this transfer are due in great 
part to habituation and to a more economic adaptation of at- 
tention, i.e., are general rather than special in character." The 
investigation is not reported in sufl^icient detail to enable one 
to go into a thorough analysis of the procedure so as to test 
the rehability of the results. The very fact that the control 
group did worse in the second test should be regarded as signi- 
ficant, for it plainly indicates too few subjects and, perhaps, 
some irregularity in giving the tests. 

Coover and Angell- report also an experiment in which they 
sought to discover the effect of practice in card-sorting upon 
typewriter reactions. There were four subjects in the prac- 
tice group and three in the control. The training consisted 
of about fifteen exercises in sorting cards, distributed over a 

^American Journ. of Psychol, 1907, 18, 327-336, 
'Ibid, 336-340. 



18 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

period of forty days. Previous to the training the practice 
group was tested for five days in typewriter reactions, and 
after the training, for three days ; while the control group was 
tested for only three days before and two days after. To make 
the results comparable both groups should have been tested in 
exactly the same way and under the same conditions. Since 
there is no common basis of comparison conclusions based on 
such an experiment are unreliable. The practice group im- 
proved more in the tests from the first three days before train- 
ing to the last three days before training, than from the last 
three days before training to the three after training. Inves- 
tigations of this kind, when conducted with so few subjects 
and so little regard for scientific accuracy, only emphasize the 
necessity and importance of consistent, accurate procedure. 
They certainly do not justify any such conclusion as that 
"training the activity of Reaction with Discrimination and 
Choice by sorting cards into compartments has increased the 
facility of a like activity in both speed and regularity in 'type- 
writer-reaction' (a) noticeably, in two cases, after the latter 
had become automatic, and (b) markedly in two others, in the 
course of practice." 

Gilbert and Fracker^ sought to determine what effect prac- 
tice in reaction and discrimination with stimuli in one sense 
has on the same process in other senses, the latter not having 
been practiced at all. There were three subjects, each of whom 
was tested in reacting simply, and reacting "with choice," to 
the following stimuli : Color, pressure, and electricity. Each 
day thereafter for twelve days two of the subjects practiced 
reacting simply, and also "with choice" to sound. The other 
subject practiced eleven days in reacting to simple sound only. 
The three were then tested again as in the beginning. In the 
opinion of the authors the results justified the following con- 
clusions : 

a. That practice in reaction to sound reduces the time of 
reaction to other forms of stimuli by amounts almost equal to 
the reduction of the time of sound reaction itself. 

b. That such practice alone does not reduce the time of 
discrimination and choice. 

c. That practice in discrimination of sounds reduces also 
the time of discrimination for other forms of stimuli. 

The second conclusion is based on the fact that the subject 

^University of Iowa Studies in Psychology, 1897, 1, 62-76. 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. 19 

that practiced in simple reaction only, made scarcely any gain 
in reaction "with choice." The figures show that his record in 
the first test was almost as good as the records of the other 
two in the second test. Consequently, we should expect him to 
make little improvement, for the first test shows him to be 
much nearer the physiological limit than either of the others. 
There were too few subjects and not sufficient practice to make 
the conclusions of any scientific value. Then, too, the functions 
tested and the functions trained contained many identical ele- 
ments. 

Bair^ made several experiments on the influence of prac- 
tice in forming certain associative habits upon the ability in 
certain different habits. We shall notice two that bear some- 
what upon the problem of transfer. 

1. Taking six symbols, letters or figures, Bair made a 
series of fifty-five; with six different symbols he made an- 
other series of fifty-five ; and so on until he had twenty sets of 
these series. Having labeled six keys of a typewriter with the 
six symbols of the first series, he exposed the fifty-five sym- 
bols of this series, in chance order, one by one, while the sub- 
jects upon seeing a symbol tapped the corresponding key. The 
time required to tap out the series was recorded. In the same 
way six other symbols were used with the series composed of 
them. The time required to tap out this series was recorded. 
This was kept up until the twenty sets had been used. It will 
be noted that the symbols were changed from test to test, thus 
changing somewhat the conditions of the experiment. Four 
subjects took the tests. The first improved from 62 to 52; the 
second, from 95 to 85; the third, from 71.5 to 58; and the 
fourth, from 65 to 56. Bair claims that the major part of this 
gain could not have been due to merely getting used to the 
machine or the general features of the experiments, for the 
fourth subject was already used to these and still gained nearly 
as much as any one of the others. It is hardly necessary to 
call attention to the fact that the conditions of each succeeding 
test were the same, with the exception of the six symbols. Thus 
there were many identical elements, and these were being 
practiced from test to test. Probably the slight improvement 
made was due to the practice of these elements. 

2. The other experiment "consisted in taking daily 
records, for twenty days, by means of a stop-watch, of the time 

'Psychol. Review, Monogr. 19, 1902, pp. 25, 28, 64-67. 



20 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

required to repeat the alphabet from memory. Each day's 
experiment was as follows : First, the alphabet was repeated as 
rapidly as possible forward; secondly, the letter n was inter- 
cepted between each of the letters; thirdly, the alphabet was 
repeated as rapidly as possible backward ; and lastly, the alpha- 
bet was repeated backward intercepting n between each of the 
letters. At the end of twenty practices in each order, the sub- 
ject repeated the alphabet, first, forward, intercepting, in- 
stead of n, the letter x, and repeating three times; secondly, 
intercepting r, and repeating three times ; then lastly, repeating 
backward, and in like manner intercepting x and r and repeat- 
ing three times." In the test series there was an improvement 
equivalent to that of three days' practice in the training series. 
Here, as before, there were many identical elements. 

Ruger^ in an "experimental study of the processes involved 
in the solution of mechanical puzzles and in the acquisition of 
skill in their manipulation," also studied the transfer effects, 
and attempted to isolate the factors involved. The materials 
and method of procedure are too intricate for an intelligible 
and detailed description without some study of the puzzles 
themselves. With the aid of his subjects' introspections in con- 
nection with objective measurements Ruger made a classifi- 
cation of the transfer factors into (1) general factors, and (2) 
special factors. He says: "It has seemed advisable to the 
writer to use the term transfer in a very broad sense to in- 
clude the effect of any given experience on any subsequent 
one whether the effect results directly or by means of an idea, 
whether the transfer is one of method, or of material, or of 
motor processes, and whether it is positive or negative," And, 
again, "to the writer the problem consciousness considered in 
itself and as to conditions of eflficiency seems to have many 
characteristics in common irrespective of the degree of related- 
ness of the material concerned." 

Foster- studied the effects of practice upon visualizing and 
upon the reproduction of visual impressions, and reached the 
conclusion : "That training in these experim^ents has made the 
observers noticeably better observers or memorizers in general, 
or given them any habits of observing closely or reporting 
correctly, or furnished any ability to meet better any situa- 
tions generally met with, neither we nor the observers them- 
selves believe." 

^Archives of Psychology, 1910. No. 15. 
'Journal of Educational Psychology, 1911, 2, 11-21. 



DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. 21 

Whipple^ tested the effect of practice upon the range of 
visual attention and of visual apprehension and concluded that 
the improvement was due to "habituation to experimental con- 
ditions" and th'^ use of "assimilative devices." 

In his "Educative Process," page 42, Bagley reports an 
experiment, made by Squire, on the transfer effects of special 
training in neatness in arithmetical v^ork, on neatness in other 
school work. In his report Bagley says: "At the Montana 
State Normal College careful experiments were undertaken to 
determine whether the habit of producing neat papers in arith- 
metic will function with reference to neat written work in 
other studies; the tests were confined to the intermediate 
grades. The results are almost startling in their failure to 
show the slightest improvement in language and spelling pa- 
pers, although the improvement in the arithmetic papers was 
noticeable from the very first." 

On the other hand, Ruediger- reports that neatness culti- 
vated in connection with one school subject did improve neat- 
ness in other subjects. However, it would seem almost im- 
possible for a teacher to follow the instructions given without 
suggesting to the pupils the importance of neatness in other 
school subjects as well as the activities specially mentioned. 
Attention is called to two of the instructions in which the 
writer thinks these suggestions are involved. 

"1. Talk freely with the class (not to) on the importance 
of neatness in dress, business, the home, hospitals, etc., con- 
necting it as far as you can with the subject under experiment. 
Guard against overdoses. 

"2. Do not bring up the subject of neatness with the other 
studies of the school. If the pupils bring up these studies 
quietly substitute something else. Talk of neatness only in 
that class, not to the school in general." 

The writer feels confident that the fact that neatness was 
demanded in one school subject, and emphasized as an ideal 
in everything else than the other school subjects, aroused sus- 
picion on the part of the pupils, and perhaps, was more effec- 
tive in influencing their behavior in the tabooed subjects than 
if such subjects had not been so conspicuously isolated and ne- 
glected. 

^Journal of Educational Psychology, 1910, 1, 249-262. 
"Educational Revieiv, 1908, 36, 364-371. 



22 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

Jastrow^ found Hermann and Keller, sleight-of-hand per- 
formers, not quite as good in reaction-time experiments as the 
average college student. Quick as they were in performing 
their tricks, they were not quick enough to escape detection 
when required to perform them in slightly different ways. 

Raif- tested expert pianists and found that they could not 
manipulate a telegraph key any more rapidly than persons of 
average intelligence. 

Thorndike' calls attention to the fact that experiments on 
the amount and rate of improvement with practice "shows 
negatively that the practice in the tasks of school and life 
which an earnest graduate student has had leave him still far 
below his possibilities — so far below that a very small amount 
of time devoted to any special function improves it greatly." 

In presenting this survey the writer has followed the same 
general plan used by Thorndike in his excellent presentation 
and discussion of the investigations of the problems of trans- 
fer in his Educational Psychology, Vol. 2, chapter 12. Although 
the writer acknowledges his indebtedness for the free use of 
Thorndike's presentation, yet, wherever possible, the presen- 
tations and discussions are the writer's own. In concluding 
his discussion Thorndike says: "These experimental facts as 
a whole leave a rather confused impression on one's mind, and 
resist organization into any simple statement of how far the 
improvement wrought by special practice spreads beyond the 
function primarily exercised. They do, however, at least put 
out of court the old doctrine of a very wide spread of a very 
large percentage of the special improvement." To the present 
writer these investigations emphasize also the necessity and 
importance of a standard method of procedure to which inves- 
tigations of the problem of transfer should conform. Surely 
sufficient experimentation has been done to make clear what 
constitutes a standard method of procedure. Thorndike very 
aptly says: "The experimental facts now at hand are in a 
sense trivial in comparison with the very great variety of facts 
which must be measured in order to describe justly the spread 
of improvement in the work of the schools, trades, and the 
like."^ 

'Science, N. S., 1896, 3, 685-689. 
'Zeitschrift fur Psijchologie, 1900, 24, 352-356. 
^Educational Psychology, 1913. Vol. 2, 415-416. 
'Op. cit. Vol. 2, p. 417. 



CHAPTER II. 

DESCRIPTION AND DISCUSSION OF MATERIALS 
AND PROCEDURE 

Section 1. Preliminary Investigations. 

In three preliminary investigations the writer sought to 
discover, within a limited field, an answer to some of the ques- 
tions involved in the problem of the transfer effects of practice. 

A. Reaction Time 

The first experiment had to do with reaction time. Three 
subjects were tested in reacting to a soft sound rather than a 
loud one ; to a light pressure rather than a heavy one ; and to 
blue rather than red. They were then practiced for eight 
weeks in reacting each 200 times daily to a sound of medium 
intensity. At intervals of two weeks the three tests were re- 
peated. There was considerable improvement in the test series, 
but not so much as in the practice series. It was impossible 
to determine how much of the improvement in the test series, 
if any, was due to transfer, as there was no control group by 
which to measure the improvement due to direct practice in 
the tests themselves. 

B. Cancellation 

The second experiment was made with cancellation tests. 
Nineteen subjects were engaged — nine for the control group, 
and ten for the practice group. Both groups were tested at the 
same time, by the time limit method, with five cancellation 
tests. The practice group was trained 30 minutes a day for 
10 days in cancelling in EngHsh prose words containing both 
a and t. On account of eye strain four of the subjects were 
forced to withdraw from the practice. When the practice was 
completed, the two groups — six of the practice group and nine 
of the control group — were reassembled and retested with the 
five tests used before the practice began. In only one test did 

23 



24 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

the practice group give reliable evidence of superiority to the 
control group, and that v^as the test in Spanish prose, in which 
words containing both a and t were cancelled. The elements 
which determined the cancelling in this test were the same as 
the elements which determined the cancelling in the practice 
series. 

C. Cancellation 

In the third experiment the materials of the practice series 
and of the test series were the same as those used in the second 
experiment. In fact these two experiments were in progress at 
the same time. The subjects in the second were boys and girls 
in the fifth grade of the Speyer School, New York City ; while 
the subjects in the third were girls in the Scudder Secretarial 
School of New York City. They ranged in age from 18 to 19 
years. Thirty-five girls were tested with the five tests. Four- 
teen of them volunteered to practice regularly every day as 
they had time. At the end of three weeks only seven had 
practiced, while only three of these had done the amount re- 
quired. However, these seven were accepted as the practice 
group. The two groups were reassembled and tested as before. 
The practice group had a decided superiority over the control 
group in the Spanish a — t Word test. In the other tests there 
were no reliable differences as measured by the probable error. 

Section II. The Present Investigation. 

As a result of these preliminary experiments, seven can- 
cellation tests, to be described later, were decided upon; and 
in order that the investigation might be thorough the writer 
determined to secure as large a group of subjects as possible 
under conditions which would enable him to carry the experi- 
ment through to a successful conclusion. The general plan has 
been set forth in the Introduction. Briefly, it was as follows : 
Having decided that the practice should consist in cancelling, 
in English prose, words contained both a and t, seven cancella- 
tion tests more or less similar to the practice material, were 
selected. Eighty boys, ranging in age from 11 to 13 years, of 
the Hebrew Orphans Home,^ of New York City, were tested 

This Institution is more like a large boarding school than like an 
orphanage. Individuality in manner and dress, spontaneity and freedom 
of expression, are manifest characteristics of the children. The Super- 
intendent and one of the Governors cooperated with the writer in arous- 
ing interest in the experiment and in conducting the practice and tests 
with systematic regularity. 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 25 

twice with each of these tests. Thirty-six of these eighty- 
subjects were trained for four ten-minute periods a day dur- 
ing sixteen days in cancelhng a — t words in Enghsh prose. At 
the conclusion of the practice all of the subjects (with the ex- 
ception of four) were retested twice with each of the seven 
tests used before the practice. 

A. Practice Material 

The material for the practice was selected with special 
reference to the problem to be solved. One hundred copies of 
a pamphlet called the "Gold Standard," pubhshed by Ginn and 
Co., in 1896, were used in the practice series. These books 
contained 143 pages of prose printed on excellent paper. There 
were no pictures and the reading matter was of no special in- 
terest to the subjects. 

B. Test Material 

The test materials were selected with special reference to 
the task involved in the practice. 

1. The Spanish a — t Word Test. This test consisted of a 
paragraph of Spanish prose in which all words containing both 
a and t were to be cancelled. 

2. The Spanish e — s Word Test. This test consisted of 
the same paragraph of Spanish prose used in Test 1, but now 
the words containing both e and s were to be cancelled. 

3. The a and t Letter Test. This test consisted of a dis- 
tribution of small letters in which the letters a and t were to 
be cancelled. 

4. The e and s Letter Test. This test consisted of the 
same distribution of small letters used in Test 3, but now the 
letters e and s were to be cancelled. 

5. The Columbia A Test. This test consisted in a distri- 
bution of capital letters in which the A's were to be cancelled. 

6. The Thorndike B Test This test consisted in a distri- 
bution of capital letters different from that used in Test 5, in 
which the B's were to be cancelled. 

7. The Woodworth and Wells Number-Group Checking 
Test. This test consisted in a distribution of six-place number- 
groups, in which groups containing both 4 and 7 were to be 
cancelled. 



26 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

C. Procedure 

Each subject was supplied with a drawing pencil, which had 
been properly sharpened. Before the blanks were distributed 
one was shown to the subjects and the task to be performed 
was carefully explained. The subjects were then asked ques- 
tions concerning the task, and, in turn, were invited to ask ques- 
tions of the writer, if they did not understand clearly what the 
task was. They were told that the test blanks would be dis- 
tributed face down and that they were to write their names on 
the back of them, and that just three seconds before they 
were to begin cancelling, the signal "ready" would be given, 
which would mean that the blanks were to be turned over and 
pencils held in readiness for the command to "start" cancell- 
ing. They were also told that the cancelling would last exactly 
one minute, and that at the signal "stop," they were to lay 
the pencils on the table. Promptly at the conclusion of each 
test the blanks were collected and another set distributed. The 
same method was used with each one of the seven tests. Im- 
mediately upon the completion of the series, the seven tests 
were given again in the same order with the same instructions 
as before. The subjects were urged at the beginning of each 
test to cancel only the designated symbols and to cancel as 
rapidly as possible. 

All of the work, both the practice and tests, was done at 
night between 7:15 and 8:30, in one of the large school rooms 
of the Hebrew Orphans Home. The seven tests described 
above were given on October 22, 1914 and will be known in this 
investigation as the Initial Test Series. On October 26 thirty- 
seven of the eighty subjects began the practice, and will be 
referred to as the Practice Group; while the remaining sub- 
jects will be known as the Control Group.^ The practice per- 
iods were each 10 minutes long and there were four of them 
each night for 16 nights, distributed over a period of 22 days. 
There was no practice on Friday and Sunday night. At the be- 
ginning of each practice period, the task to be performed was 
carefully explained and the subjects urged to do their best in 
speed and accuracy. Each subject was provided with a draw- 
ing pencil properly sharpened. These pencils along with the 

^As a matter of fact, on the 12th day of the practice, one subject of the 
practice group was expelled on account of cheating; and three of the 
control group failed to take the final test, on account of sickness. Con- 
sequently the practice group consisted of 36 and the control group of 40 
subjects. 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 27 

books were collected promptly at the conclusion of the practice 
each night. 

Precautions were taken against cheating. One of the Gov- 
ernors of the Home, and two trustworthy monitors, remained 
in the room during the practice. Promptly upon the signal 
from the writer to stop cancelling, the monitors, under his di- 
rection, rubber-stamped the place reached by each subject. 
The books were closed and the pencils placed on the desk. 
Careful watch was kept to see that no subject tampered with 
his book during the relaxation interval allowed between the 
periods. On the 12th night of the practice one subject opened 
his book during this interval and began cancelling. He was 
promptly expelled with the approval of those in authority. The 
interval between practice periods was from six to eight 
minutes. 

Realizing the importance of securing a maximum of im- 
provement in the practice, the following incentives Wr»re em- 
ployed: (1) On the second night of the practice, two prizes 
were offered, one to the subject making the greatest improve- 
ment, and one to the subject cancelling the largest number of 
words with the fewest errors. (2) Two entertainments were 
promised ; one during the practice, and another at the conclu- 
sion if the practice proved satisfactory. (3) Before begin- 
ning the practice each night, individual scores of the previous 
night were read to the group, and each subject urged both to 
excel the other subjects and to beat his own record. (4) 
During each relaxation interval, the subjects were given candy 
or entertained with short stories or music. (5) During each 
practice period, the writer was constantly among the subjects 
encouraging them by his presence and interest. In the mean- 
time, the members of the control group were assured repeat- 
edly that they were just as capable and important as the prac- 
tice group. They were promised an entertainment if they did 
their best in the final test. Their behavior indicated an interest 
in the experiment equal to that of the practice group. It should 
be said that these promises were fulfilled. Both groups were 
fully informed as to the nature of the investigation. 

The practice was concluded on Monday night, November 16. 
On the following night, the two groups — the control group of 
forty and the practice group of thiry-six — were reassembled, 
and again tested with the same seven tests used before the 
practice began, each test being used twice. All of the material, 



28 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

both of the practice series and of the initial and final test 
series, was scored carefully by the writer himself. The scor- 
ing consisted in counting the number of cancellations and er- 
rors, the errors being mostly those of omission. The total 
number of a — t words cancelled in the practice series was 
452,995 and the total number of errors was 35,719. The data 
of the experiment will be found in the next section. 

Since more than 99 per cent, of the errors were errors of 
omission, the total ground covered, or gross speed, is repre- 
sented by the sum of the cancellations and errors. Conse- 
quently the per cent, of accuracy per period can be obtained 
by dividing the number of cancellations per period by the total 
ground covered, or gross speed. For instance, the average 
number of cancellations for the first practice period was 102.6 
a — t words, and the average number of errors (mostly omis- 
sions), 27 a — t words. Therefore, the total ground covered, 
or gross speed, was 129.6 a — t words. By dividing 102.6 by 
129.6 the per cent, of accuracy is obtained. 

Section III. Treatment of the Data 

A. Data of the Practice Series 

Instead of presenting in detail all of the data of the practice 
series, the data of the group performance in each practice per- 
iod will be presented. It will be found in Table I. 

The reader should bear in mind that each practice period 
was ten minutes long, and that there were four of them each 
night for sixteen nights. Consequently, there are sixteen 
first-periods, sixteen second-periods, sixteen third-periods and 
sixteen fourth-periods. The table is so constructed that one 
can not only follow the progress of the group both in speed 
and accuracy of cancellation through each successive practice 
period, but from each first-period to the next first-period, and 
from each second-period to the next second-period, and so on 
with the sixteen third-periods and sixteen fourth-periods. The 
first double column contains the data for the sixteen first- 
periods ; the first half containing the average number of can- 
cellations, and the second half the corresponding percents 
of accuracy. The remaining columns of the table are con- 
structed in exactly the same manner. 

If one wishes to follow the progress of the practice group in 
successive practice periods, he reads across the table thus : In 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 



29 



the first period the group has an average performance of 102.6 
cancellations, and an accuracy of 79 per cent. ; in the second 
period, 101.0 cancellations and 82 per cent, of accuracy, and so 
on to the fourth period. In the fifth period (the first period 
of the second day) an average of 132.3 cancellations and an 
accuracy of 86 per cent., and so on through the table. If, on 
the other hand, one cares to follow the progress in each suc- 




Figure I — Showing Progress of the Practice Group in Average Num- 
ber of Cancellations per Period, through the Sixty-four Practice Periods. 




Figure II — Showing Improvement in the Percent of Accuracy. 



30 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

TABLE I. 

DATA OF THE PRACTICE SERIES 

(The figures represent the average for the thirty-six subjects. Each 
of the four periods per day is averaged separately and occupies a sepa- 
rate column in the table. Accompanying each average is the correspond- 
ing per cent, of accuracy for that period.) 

Days First Period Second Period Third Period Fourth Period 
Av. Can. %Acc. Av. Can. %Acc. Av. Can. %Acc. Av, Can. %Acc. 



1 


102.6 


79 


101.0 


82 


126.4 


86 


128,9 


84 


2 


132.3 


86 


137.7 


86 


145.8 


85 


151.3 


85 


3 


134.9 


88 


149.1 


87 


153.4 


87 


161.2 


87 


4 


146.0 


90 


152.2 


89 


156.6 


88 


159.2 


89 


5 


145.1 


91 


153.0 


89 


182.2 


90 


189.1 


93 


6 


160.9 


93 


174.3 


92 


182.0 


93 


166.3 


94 


7 


176.2 


93 


186.1 


92 


196.1 


93 


192.6 


94 


8 


211.8 


93 


203.2 


93 


218.4 


93 


202.8 


94 


9 


212.9 


94 


216.8 


93 


190.0 


95 


206.1 


94 


10 


216.6 


95 


226.4 


94 


211.1 


94 


225.5 


95 


11 


225.2 


94 


234.3 


93 


218.3 


95 


223.4 


94 


12 


235.2 


94 


236.2 


94 


232.3 


95 


241.3 


95 


13 


234.6 


94 


238.3 


93 


240.1 


94 


231.9 


96 


14 


236.5 


95 


237.0 


95 


234.6 


96 


228.9 


95 


15 


231.3 


96 


233.6 


95 


234.2 


94 


243.4 


94 


16 


239.5 


96 


260.7 


96 


257.6 


96 


266.5 


96 



ceeding first-period, or second-period, and so on, he reads down 
the double columns. If the practice is followed from period 
to period as it occurs and the changes observed, one will notice 
that out of the sixty-three possible changes there are forty- 
four in which there is an increase in the number of cancella- 
tions ; ten of these are accompanied by an increase in accuracy, 
twenty by a decrease and fourteen by no change. There are 
eighteen cases in which there is a decrease in the number of 
cancellations, two of which are accompanied by a decrease in 
accuracy, thirteen by an increase and three by no change. 
The one case in which there is no change in the number of 
cancellations is accompanied by a decrease in accuracy. As 
the writer deemed it unwise to attempt to get introspections 
from subjects so young, he has no explanations of these facts 
to offer from the point of view of the subjects themselves. 
However, he noticed after the first week of practice, that the 
subjects were striving more and more for accuracy. During 
the second and third weeks more than half of the errors were 
made by fewer than eight subjects. 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 



31 




Figure III — Showing Improvement in Speed of Cancellation in Terms 
of the Four Daily Practice Periods. 




^ 3 -V 5- 



9 10 11 /A n ;y js Ik 



Figure IV — Showing Improvement in Percent, of Accuracy in Terms 
of the Four Daily Practice Periods. 



32 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

The data in Table I are presented in graphic form in figures 
I, II, III and IV. Figure I shows the progress of the practice 
group in average number of cancellations per period for the 
sixty-four ten-minute periods of the practice series, while 
figure II shows the corresponding per cents, of accuracy. The 
numbers along the horizontal axis indicate the practice periods, 
while those along the vertical axis indicate, in figure I, average 
number of cancellations per period, and in figure II, per cents, 
of accuracy. In figure III the progress in average cancellation 
per period is presented, not through each successive period, 
but through each of the sixteen first-periods, each of the 
sixteen second-periods, and so on. The continuous line 
represents the progress through the first-periods, the 
broken line through the second-periods, the dash line 
through the third-periods and the dotted line through the 
fourth-periods. The corresponding per cents, of accuracy are 
presented in the same way in figure IV. An inspection of these 
figures shows that the practice group made considerable pro- 
gress both in speed and accuracy of cancellation. This im- 
provement is evident both in the graphs showing the consecu- 
tive practice periods, and also in those showing the four sepa- 
rate practice periods of each day in separate curves. 

B. Data of the Test Series 

Table II presents in detail the data of the seven tests for 
the practice group. In the first column the subjects are indi- 
cated by numbers 1 to 36. Under Spanish a — t Word Test are 
four columns ; the first two contain the data of the initial test 
series, while the last two contain the data of the final test 
series. Under "Can." will be found the number of actual can- 
cellations per minute for each subject, and under "Er." the 
corresponding errors. The data of the other six tests are re- 
corded in exactly the same way. It should be borne in mind 
that in each series of tests — the initial and the final — each of 
the seven tests was given twice, and that the numbers re- 
corded in Table II are the averages of these two tests. The 
table reads thus: In the Spanish a — t Word Test subject No. 
1 has an initial performance of 7,0 cancellations per minute 
and 1.5 errors, and a final performance of 15.0 cancellations 
per minute and 2.0 errors; in the Spanish e — s Word Test an 
initial performance of 10.0 cancellations per minute and 1.0 
errors, and a final performance of 11.0 cancellations per min- 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 



33 



ute and 0.0 errors, and so on with each of the other tests. The 
performances of the other subjects are read in the same way. 



TABLE II. 

DATA OF THE PRACTICE GROUP IN THE TEST SERIES 



Spanish a-t Word Test 

Initial Final 

Sub. Can. Er. Can. Er. 

1 7.0 1.5 15.0 2.0 

2 9.0 1.5 14.0 0.0 

3 8.0 0.0 16.0 0.5 

4 9.0 1.5 17.5 3.5 

5 9.5 1.0 19.5 0.0 

6 12.5 1.0 19.5 1.5 

7 10.0 3.0 15.5 1.0 

8 11.5 0.0 18.0 0.0 

9 11.0 0.0 18.0 4.0 

10 11.5 0.0 23.0 1.5 

11 11.0 1.0 17.5 1.5 

12 11.5 0.0 19.5 0.5 

13 10.5 1.5 19.5 1.0 

14 10.5 1.0 18.5 2.0 

15 9.0 1.0 18.0 1.0 

16 9.0 2.5 19.5 0.5 

17 11.5 1.0 25.5 1.0 

18 10.0 0.0 18.5 0.0 

19 8.5 2.0 20.0 0.5 

20 10.0 0.5 19.5 1.5 

21 9.0 2.0 14.0 2.5 

22 11.0 0.5 17.0 3.0 

23 11.5 0.5 19.0 2.5 

24 9.5 1.5 20.0 1.0 

25 10.5 0.5 17.5 3.5 

26 9.5 6.5 20.5 2.5 

27 8.0 2.5 15.5 0.5 

28 7.0 4.5 17.0 1.5 

29 10.5 1.0 21.5 1.5 

30 11.0 1.5 20.5 0.5 

31 11.0 0.5 17.5 0.5 

32 10.0 1.5 16.5 0.5 

33 9.5 0.5 14.0 0.5 

34 12.0 12.0 21.0 4.5 

35 9.0 0.5 20.0 3.5 

36 11.5 0.0 21.5 1.5 



Spanish e-s Word Test 

Initial Final 

Can. Er. Can. Er- 

10.0 1.0 11.0 0.0 

9.5 2.5 11.5 1.5 

10.5 0.0 12.0 3.0 

11.0 0.0 12.0 4.0 

11.0 1.0 11.5 3.0 

11.5 0.0 15.0 1.5 

10.0 1.5 8.5 3.0 

12.5 0.0 12.5 1.0 

11.5 0.0 14.0 9.0 

11.0 0.5 16.0 7.0 

11.0 1.0 10.0 5.0 

12.0 0.0 12.0 1.5 

12.0 0.5 12.5 4.0 

11.0 0.0 10.0 3.5 

10.5 0.0 11.0 2.0 

10.5 0.5 11.5 1.0 

15.5 2.5 20.5 8.0 

10.5 0.5 12.0 1.0 

10.0 0.5 12.5 3.0 

11.0 0.0 15.5 4.5 

10.5 1.0 10.0 10.5 

12.0 2.5 12.0 4.5 

12.0 0.0 17.0 3.5 

7.5 4.0 15.0 7.5 

11.0 0.5 12.5 7.0 

11.5 1.5 11.5 2.0 

11.5 1.5 12.0 5.0 

11.0 2.0 10.5 4.5 

11.5 0.5 16.5 3.5 

14.5 6.0 15.0 10.5 

11.0 1.0 12.0 2.5 

10.0 1.0 9.5 3.0 

10.0 0.0 11.0 0.0 

12.5 1.0 11.0 10.0 

10.5 1.0 11.5 16.0 

11.5 0.0 13.0 2.5 



This table shows the initial and final performance of each member 
of the practice group in each of the seven tests, in terms of number of 
cancellations and errors per minute. 



34 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

TABLE II (Continued). 

DATA OF THE PRACTICE GROUP IN THE TEST SERIES 

Letter Test a and t Letter Test e and s 

S„h r^^^'^'i /'""^^ ^"^*^^1 Final 

Sub. Can. Er. Can. Er. Can. Er. Can Er- 

1 27.0 0.0 34.0 1.0 40.0 0.0 42.0 1.5 

2 29.0 5.5 29.5 2.5 42.0 1.0 415 15 

3 18.5 2.5 29.5 2.0 36.0 0.0 39*5 25 

4 26.5 8.0 30.5 0.0 39.0 4.0 490 10 
32.0 60 40.0 6.5 47.5 3.0 53 5 ! 

7 Hi rn tli '•' ''■' '•' 52-5 2.0 

8 275 li f.i '•' ''•' 2.5 41.5 1.0 

9 So li Hi '•' "'-^ '-' 41.0 2.0 
9 27.0 8.5 38.0 1.0 43.0 52 5 10 

10 30.5 6.0 48.0 0.5 47.5 25 56 .0 

2 ?0? oi ''•' '•' ''■' «-5 39.0 0.5 

12 30.5 2.5 47.5 1.0 40.5 0.0 495 30 

13 27.5 9.0 36.5 1.5 4I.O 4 5 ^0 oi 

14 24.0 0.5 33.0 1.0 43.5 H 32. ! 

6 32I In f«n '■' ''■' '■' 29.5 0.0 

16 32.5 2.0 48.0 1.0 53.5 2.0 57 15 

17 9.0 1.0 46.0 0.5 53.5 1.5 530 2.5 

18 26.5 3.0 42.0 1.0 39.0 2.5 47 5 

19 24.5 1.0 35.0 3-0 36.5 1.5 tli 25 

2 2 10I tli '■' ''■' '■' 4^-« 20 

22 240 9, Hi ^'' 29.5 8.0 33.5 10-0 

23 So li !?n '•' ^'-^ ^-0 29.0 1.5 

24 Iti ti til '•' ''■' '■' 46.0 0.5 
^4 33.5 5.5 34.5 2.5 44.0 4 45 9k 

25 20.5 0.0 36.0 1.0 34.5 t'o til H 

fl 25*0 «'n f.i '•' ^'-^ 3-0 34.0 1.5 

27 25.0 6.0 41-5 5.0 44.0 15 420 R^ 

29 300 \\ '^l '-' ''-' '' 45:0 3: 
In m .i '^-^ ^'^ 45.5 1.5 52.5 2-5 

30 43.5 5.5 53.0 1.5 70.5 2.0 66.5 2.5 

32 lA li ''•' '•' ^^-5 1-0 36.0 2.0 

33 ?«n A f •' '•' 32.0 0.5 26.0 4.0 

34 36 110 ?A '•' 28.0 2.5 30.0 0-5 

35 2?'o ]i I'/ ^-^ ''■' ^-5 55.0 7.5 

36 lln li fA ^'^ 3'-^ 5-0 40.0 10.5 
36 26.0 3.0 40.0 3.0 38.5 1.5 39 2 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 



35 



TABLE II (Continued). 

DATA OF THE PRACTICE GROUP IN THE TEST SERIES 





Capital A Test 




Capital B Test 






Initial 


Final 


Initial 


Final 


Sub 


. Can. 


Er. 


Can. 


Er. 


Can. 


Er. 


Can. 


Er- 


1 


36.5 


1.5 


45.0 


0.5 


18.5 


0.5 


20.0 


0.5 


2 


37.0 


1.0 


40.0 


0.0 


20.5 


3.0 


21.0 


1.5 


3 


34.0 


3.0 


42.5 


0.5 


15.5 


0.0 


22.0 


2-5 


4 


40.5 


0.5 


46.5 


0.0 


19.0 


0.0 


18.0 


1.0 


5 


47.0 


1.0 


62-5 


0.5 


24.0 


0.5 


31.5 


1.0 


6 


41.5 


0.0 


61.0 


0.0 


23.0 


0.5 


31.0 


3.0 


7 


41.0 


0.0 


54.5 


1.0 


22.0 


0.0 


31.0 


0-5 


8 


40.0 


0.0 


56.0 


1.0 


20.0 


1.0 


25.0 


4.0 


9 


36.5 


0.0 


46-5 


1.0 


19.5 


1.0 


25.5 


0.0 


10 


32.0 


3.5 


72.0 


5.0 


20.5 


0.5 


32.0 


4.0 


11 


37.0 


3.0 


43.5 


0.0 


20.0 


1.0 


25.0 


00 


12 


41.5 


3.0 


57.0 


0.0 


23.0 


0.5 


34.0 


0.0 


13 


41.5 


0.0 


510 


0.5 


21.5 


0.5 


32.0 


0.5 


14 


38.5 


0.0 


48.5 


0.0 


19.5 


0.0 


20.0 


0.5 


15 


33.5 


1.0 


48.0 


0.0 


14.5 


0.0 


19.0 


2-5 


16 


44.5 


1.5 


62.5 


0.5 


24.5 


0.5 


31.5 


0.0 


17 


37.5 


0.0 


61-5 


1.0 


21.5 


0.0 


28.0 


2.0 


18 


37.0 


0.0 


49.0 


0.0 


20.0 


0.5 


28.5 


1.0 


19 


41.5 


0.5 


57.5 


0.5 


16.5 


0.5 


22.0 


7-5 


20 


30.5 


1.0 


47.0 


4.5 


17.5 


1.0 


29.5 


3.5 


21 


37.0 


2.0 


42-5 


3.0 


17.0 


3.5 


19.0 


1.5 


22 


35.5 


0.5 


37.0 


0.5 


25.5 


0.0 


24.0 


0.0 


23 


88.0 


1.0 


48.0 


1.5 


20.0 


0.0 


22.0 


7-0 


24 


43.5 


0,5 


49.0 


0.0 


20.5 


0.5 


28.5 


4.5 


25 


35.5 


0.0 


44-5 


0.0 


16.0 


0.0 


21.0 


0.5 


26 


49.5 


0.0 


58.5 


0.0 


25.5 


1.5 


22.0 


5.0 


27 


31.5 


1.5 


50.5 


6.5 


19.5 


1.5 


25.0 


5.0 


28 


35.5 


0.0 


50-5 


2.0 


18.0 


2.0 


23.0 


1.5 


29 


38.0 


1.0 


57.5 


0.5 


23.0 


0.5 


31.0 


1.5 


30 


45.5 


8.0 


60.5 


0.5 


33.5 


0.5 


34.0 


10 


31 


40.0 


0.5 


52.5 


0.0 


23.5 


0.5 


27.5 


1.0 


32 


35.0 


0.0 


41-5 


0.5 


19.5 


1.0 


24.0 


0.0 


33 


32.5 


1.0 


44.0 


0.0 


18.5 


1.0 


22.5 


0.5 


34 


41.0 


6.0 


66.5 


3.5 


32.5 


4.0 


33.0 


30 


35 


34.5 


0.0 


49.0 


0.5 


21.5 


0.0 


28.5 


1.0 


36 


38.5 


0.5 


590 


0.5 


18.5 


0.5 


24.5 


2.0 



36 



TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 
TABLE II (Continued). 

DATA OF THE PRACTICE GROUP IN THE TEST SERIES 

4 and 7 Group Test 
Initial Pinal 

Sub. Can. Er. Can. Er 



1 


11.0 


0.0 


16.0 


1.0 


2 


18.0 


0.5 


16.5 


1.0 


3 


9.0 


0.0 


17-5 


0.0 


4 


14.5 


0.0 


18.0 


2.5 


5 


16.5 


0.0 


21.0 


0-5 


6 


19.0 


0.0 


22.5 


0.5 


7 


14.0 


0.0 


16.5 


20 


8 


11.0 


0.0 


18.0 


0.5 


9 


16.0 


0.5 


20.0 


2.0 


10 


20.0 


0.5 


29.0 


0.0 


11 


13.0 


0.0 


17-5 


5.0 


12 


19.0 


0.0 


25.0 


0.0 


13 


18.0 


0.5 


17.0 


1.0 


14 


16.0 


0.0 


15.0 


7.0 


15 


9.0 


0.0 


17.5 


0.0 


16 


21.0 


0.0 


28.0 


0.0 


17 


21.5 


1.0 


34.0 


1.0 


18 


11.0 


2.5 


16.0 


1.0 


19 


15.5 


1.0 


240 


1.0 


20 


14.5 


1.0 


22.0 


5.0 


21 


10.0 


0.5 


15.5 


4,0 


22 


20.0 


0.0 


19.5 


1.5 


23 


15.5 


0.0 


22.0 


10 


24 


12.0 


0.0 


19.0 


2.0 


25 


11.0 


0.5 


16.5 


4.5 


26 


13.0 


0.0 


20.0 


0.0 


27 


14.5 


0.5 


17-5 


3.0 


28 


15.5 


1.0 


19.5 


2.0 


29 


14.0 


1.0 


19.0 


0.5 


30 


29.0 


0.5 


34.5 


0.5 


31 


18.0 


0.5 


20.0 


00 


32 


14.5 


0.0 


20.0 


0.0 


33 


9.5 


0.0 


14.5 


0.0 


34 


26.0 


0.5 


26.0 


4.5 


35 


16.0 


0.0 


24.0 


3.0 


36 


12.5 


1.0 


18.5 


1.0 



Table III gives in detail the data of the Control group in 
the two test series. This table is constructed in exactly the 
same way as Table II. In the first column the subjects are in- 
dicated by the numbers 1 to 40. It reads thus : In the Spanish 
a-t Word Test Subject No. 1 has an itial performance of 
10.5 cancellations per minute and 0.5 errors, and a final per- 
formance of 12.0 cancellations per minute and 0.0 errors- in 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 37 









TABLE 


III. 








DATA OF THE 


CONTROL GROUP IN 1HE TEST 


SERIES 






Spanish a-t Word Test 


Spanish e-s 


Word Test 




Initial 


Final 


Initial 


Final 


Sub. 


Can. 


Er. 


Can. 


Er. 


Can. 


Er. 


Can. 


Er- 


1 


10.5 


0.5 


12.0 


0.0 


11.0 


0.0 


11.5 


0.0 


2 


10.5 


10 


11.0 


0.0 


7.5 


4.5 


11.0 


0.0 


3 


10.0 


0.5 


13.5 


0.0 


10.5 


0.0 


12.5 


0.0 


4 


6.5 


3.0 


11.0 


2.5 


11.0 


1.5 


14.5 


0.5 


5 


10-0 


2.0 


11.0 


0.0 


10.5 


0.5 


11.5 


0.0 


6 


10.5 


1.0 


13.0 


1.0 


10.0 


1.5 


13.0 


1.0 


7 


8.5 


1-5 


10.0 


1.0 


11.5 


0.5 


11.5 


0.0 


8 


9.5 


1.5 


10.0 


0.0 


11.0 


0.0 


10.0 


0.0 


9 


10.5 


0.5 


12.0 


0.5 


10.5 


0.0 


11.0 


0.0 


10 


110 


1.5 


11.5 


1.5 


12.0 


0.0 


12.0 


1.5 


11 


8.0 


1.0 


10.5 


0.0 


11.0 


0.0 


11.0 


1.0 


12 


9.5 


0.5 


11.0 


0.5 


9.5 


0.5 


10.5 


1.0 


13 


10.5 


1-5 


12.0 


0.5 


12.0 


0.5 


12.5 


0.0 


14 


10.0 


1.0 


12.0 


1.0 


12.5 


0.5 


14.5 


0.0 


15 


7.5 


2.5 


11.5 


1.5 


10.0 


2.0 


11.5 


2.5 


16 


9-5 


0.5 


12.0 


0.0 


10.0 


0.5 


11.5 


0.0 


17 


7.0 


1.0 


9.0 


0.5 


9.0 


2.5 


10.5 


0.0 


18 


10.0 


0.0 


11.0 


1.5 


10.5 


0.5 


10.0 


2.0 


19 


12.0 


10 


12.5 


0.5 


12.0 


1.5 


12.0 


0.0 


20 


10.0 


0.0 


10.5 


1.5 


8.0 


0.0 


11.0 


0.0 


21 


8.5 


1.5 


10.5 


0.5 


10.0 


1.5 


10.5 


0.5 


22 


100 


0.0 


11.5 


0.0 


11.0 


0.5 


12.0 


0.0 


23 


7.5 


1.5 


13.0 


2.0 


11.0 


0.5 


15.0 


4.5 


24 


10.0 


0.0 


11.5 


2.0 


12.5 


0.0 


15.0 


0.5 


25 


9.5 


0-5 


12.5 


0.0 


10.0 


0.5 


11.0 


0.0 


26 


10.0 


0.0 


11.0 


0.0 


10.5 


1.0 


10.5 


1.0 


27 


9.0 


1.0 


8.5 


6.0 


10.0 


1.0 


10.5 


2.0 


28 


9-5 


2.0 


10.0 


0.5 


11.0 


0.0 


12.0 


0.0 


29 


7.5 


0.5 


11.0 


0.0 


8.5 


0.5 


10.5 


0.0 


30 


9.5 


1.0 


11.0 


1.0 


10.0 


1.5 


12.0 


0.0 


31 


12.0 


0-5 


13.0 


0.5 


11.5 


0.0 


12.5 


1.0 


32 


10.0 


0.5 


11.5 


1.5 


11.0 


0.0 


12.0 


0.0 


33 


7.5 


1.5 


10.5 


0.5 


9.5 


1.5 


10.0 


1.0 


34 


2-5 


7.0 


9.0 


0.5 


10.0 


1.0 


8.5 


4.5 


35 


6.5 


4.5 


9.5 


0.0 


6.5 


4.5 


12.0 


11.0 


36 


8.0 


1.5 


10.0 


0.0 


11.0 


0.0 


11.0 


0.0 


37 


10.5 


0-5 


12.0 


0.0 


12.0 


0.0 


15.0 


0.5 


38 


10.0 


0.5 


14.0 


2.0 


14.0 


1.5 


18.0 


1.5 


39 


9.5 


1.5 


9.5 


2.0 


11.0 


0.0 


11.5 


0.0 


40 


10-5 


0.5 


13.0 


1.0 


14.0 


0.0 


16.5 


0.5 



This table shows the initial and final performance of each member 
of the control group in each of the seven tests, in terms of number of 
cancellations and errors per minute. 



38 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

TABLE III (Continued). 

DATA OF THE CONTROL GROUP IN THE TEST SERIES 

Letter Test a and t Letter Test e and s 



Initial 


Final 


Initial 


Final 


Sub. Can 


. Er. 


Can 


. Er. 


Can 


. Er. 


Can, 


. Er- 


1 29.5 


1.5 


32.5 


1.5 


41.5 


1.5 


38.0 


4.0 


2 28.5 


1.0 


26.5 


2.5 


36.5 


0.0 


38.0 


0.5 


3 22-5 


1.0 


34.5 


1.5 


36.5 


0.5 


42.0 


0.0 


4 29.0 


4.5 


34.0 


2.0 


46.5 


1.5 


54.5 


1.0 


5 19.5 


0.5 


22.0 


0.0 


32.0 


0.5 


35.0 


0.0 


6 29.0 


10 


37.5 


2.5 


40.0 


0.5 


49.5 


1.5 


7 32.5 


2,5 


34.0 


3.0 


42.0 


2.0 


55.5 


1.0 


8 25.0 


1.0 


24.0 


0.5 


41.0 


1.0 


36.0 


0.0 


9 26-5 


0.5 


30.5 


0.5 


38.0 


0.5 


34.0 


0.0 


10 32.0 


1.5 


32.5 


0.5 


40.5 


2.0 


41.5 


0.0 


11 24.5 


2.0 


32.0 


2.5 


36.0 


1.5 


45.0 


0.5 


12 27.0 


00 


27.0 


1.5 


38.0 


0.5 


42.0 


0.0 


13 29.0 


0.0 


30.5 


2.0 


40.5 


0.5 


49.5 


0.5 


14 32.5 


1.0 


38.5 


0.5 


45.5 


2.0 


58.0 


0.0 


15 230 


5.0 


31.0 


9.0 


37.0 


1.0 


47.5 


0.5 


16 25.5 


2.0 


27.5 


0.5 


32.5 


1.0 


33.5 


1.5 


17 18.5 


2.0 


16.5 


1.0 


30.0 


1.5 


31.5 


0.5 


18 17.5 


2-5 


25.0 


3.5 


32.0 


0.0 


42.5 


0.0 


19 41.0 


0.5 


41.5 


1.0 


62.5 


3.5 


63.5 


0.5 


20 20.0 


0.5 


23.5 


0.0 


31.0 


1.5 


34.0 


0.0 


21 27-0 


1.5 


28.0 


2.5 


36.0 


1.5 


35.5 


1.0 


22 22.0 


1.5 


27.0 


2.5 


35.5 


0.5 


41.5 


1.0 


23 30.0 


2.5 


39.0 


3.0 


40.0 


2.0 


55.5 


2.0 


24 29.5 


10 


40.5 


3.0 


55.0 


3.0 


64.5 


1.5 


25 25.5 


1.0 


31.5 


3.5 


43.5 


2.5 


42.0 


0.5 


26 23.0 


0.5 


26.5 


0.0 


39.0 


0.5 


35.0 


0.0 


27 240 


3.0 


33.5 


5.5 


35.5 


1.0 


46.5 


0.5 


28 20.0 


3.5 


29.0 


7.0 


35.0 


0.5 


45.5 


1.0 


29 22.5 


0.0 


31.5 


3.5 


34.0 


1.5 


48.0 


0.5 


30 30.5 


60 


36.0 


1.0 


41.0 


0.5 


49.0 


2.0 


31 25.0 


1.0 


35.5 


0.5 


34.0 


0.0 


39.0 


0.0 


32 25.0 


3.5 


29.0 


0.0 


34.5 


2.5 


43.0 


1.5 


33 230 


6.5 


26.0 


4.0 


33.5 


3.0 


38.5 


1.5 


34 19.5 


3.5 


30.5 


2.5 


35.0 


2.0 


36.0 


3.0 


35 22.0 


5.0 


31.5 


1.5 


29.0 


4.5 


40.0 


2.0 


36 22.5 


0-5 


23.5 


1.0 


34.0 


0.5 


42.0 


0.5 


37 24.0 


2.5 


30.5 


0.5 


42.0 


1.0 


45.5 


0.0 


38 34.5 


2.0 


44.5 


1.5 


56.0 


3.0 


74.0 


1.5 


39 27-5 


4.5 


31.5 


3.0 


45.5 


0.0 


52.0 


3.5 


40 31.5 


5.5 


33.5 


2.5 


43.5 


1.0 


61.5 


1.0 



the Spanish e— s Word Test an initial performance of 11 
cancellations per minute and 0.0. errors, and a final perfor- 
mance of 11.5 cancellations per minute and 0.0 errors, and so 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 



39 



TABLE III (Continued). 

DATA OF THE CONTROL GROUP IN THE TEST SERIES 



Capital A Test 

Initial Final 

Sub. Can. Er. Can. Er. 

1 27.5 2.5 42.5 0.0 

2 37.5 00 37.5 0.5 

3 31.0 0.5 43.0 0.5 

4 35.5 0.0 48.5 0.5 

5 35-0 0.0 40.0 0.0 

6 40.5 1.0 48.5 0.5 

7 41.5 2.0 40.5 1.5 

8 34.0 10 43.5 0.0 

9 44.0 0.0 46.0 0.0 

10 38.5 3.0 39.5 0.5 

11 34-5 0.0 41.0 0.5 

12 36.5 0.0 44.5 0.5 

13 43.5 0.0 47.0 0.5 

14 36.5 0-0 53.0 0.0 

15 31.5 0.5 44.0 0.0 

16 29.5 1.0 36.0 0.0 

17 300 0.0 33.5 0.5 

18 39.0 2.0 41.0 0.5 

19 42.5 2.0 57.5 1.0 

20 33-5 0.5 45.0 0.0 

21 29.0 0.0 38.0 0.0 

22 32.0 0.0 42.0 0.0 

23 50.0 0.5 56.0 1.5 

24 39-5 0.5 62.0 1.0 

25 36.0 5.5 42.0 0.0 

26 35.0 0.0 43.5 0.0 

27 34.5 0.5 47.5 0.5 

28 270 0.0 38.5 0.5 

29 33.5 0.0 45.0 0.0 

30 46.0 1.5 54.0 1.0 

31 38.0 0.5 47.0 0.0 

32 340 1.5 42.5 0.5 

33 32.5 4.5 47.5 0.0 

34 34.5 5.0 46.0 0.5 

35 31.5 1.5 45.0 0.5 

36 300 4.5 36.0 1.5 

37 37.5 0.5 46.0 0.0 

38 44.0 3.0 62.0 1.5 

39 39.5 2.5 54.0 1.5 

40 39-0 0.0 55.5 1.0 



Capital B Test 

Initial Final 

Can. Er. Can. Er- 

21.0 0.5 24.5 0.0 

20.0 0.5 19.0 0.0 

19.5 0.0 28.0 1.0 

23.0 2.5 27.0 4.0 

19.0 0.0 20.0 0.0 

21.0 1.0 28.5 1.5 

23.5 1.5 28.5 4.0 

19.0 0.5 20.5 0.5 

21.5 0.0 20.0 0.0 

18.0 0.0 • 17.0 3.5 

16.0 1.0 19.5 0.0 

20.5 0.5 23.5 0.0 

18.5 0.5 26.0 0.5 

20.0 0.0 24.0 0.0 

18.5 1.5 21.0 0.5 

17.5 1.5 19.0 0.0 

15.5 0.5 18.5 0.0 

16.5 0.0 22.0 0.5 

24.5 0.5 23.0 1.0 

17.5 0.0 19.0 1.0 

16.0 1.0 17.0 1.0 

18.5 0.0 20.0 00 

25.0 2.5 32.5 0.5 

23.0 0.0 33.0 0.0 

20.0 0.0 24.0 1.5 

19.5 0.5 22.5 00 

17.0 1.0 19.5 1.5 

14.5 4.0 23.5 1.0 

15.5 0.5 19.5 1.5 

22.5 1.5 26.5 1.5 

16.0 1.0 23.5 1.0 

18.5 0.5 21.5 0.0 

18.0 2.0 20.5 1.0 

19.0 0.5 25.5 0-5 

17.5 1.5 26.0 5.0 

20.5 0.0 21.5 0.5 

24.0 0.0 28.0 0.0 

27.5 2.0 38.0 1-5 

23.5 2.0 29.5 2.5 

26.0 0.5 29.5 2.0 



on with the other tests. The data for each of the remaining 
subjects are to be read in the same manner. 



40 



TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

TABLE III (Continued). 

DATA OF THE CONTROL GROUP IN THE TEST SERIES 

4 and 7 Group Test 

Initial Fina! 

Sub. Can. Er. Can. Er. 

1 17.5 0.0 18-5 0.0 

2 16.0 0.0 20.5 

3 13.0 0.0 19.0 0.5 

4 12.0 2.0 17.0 1.0 

5 14.5 0-0 16.5 0.0 

6 18.0 0.0 20.5 0.5 

7 16.0 0.5 17.0 0.0 

8 11.5 1.0 12.0 0.0 

9 17.5 0.0 19-0 0.0 

10 17.5 0.5 19.0 0.0 

11 15.0 1.0 20.0 0.0 

12 15.5 0.0 18.0 0.0 

13 16.0 0-5 19.5 0.0 ' 

14 18.0 0.0 21.5 1.0 

15 16.0 0.0 18.0 0.0 

16 11.0 0.0 16.0 0.0 

17 9.5 0.0 13-0 0.0 

18 14.0 0.5 17.0 0.5 

19 22.5 0.0 20.5 0.5 

20 11.0 0.0 15.5 0.0 

21 14.5 00 18.5 0.0 

22 14.0 1.0 17.0 0.0 

23 17.0 0.5 21.5 0.5 

24 16.0 1.0 24.0 0.0 

25 18.5 0.0 20-5 1.5 

26 14.0 0.0 17.0 0.0 

27 12.5 1.0 17.5 1.0 

28 9.5 1.0 15.0 1.0 

29 10.0 00 17.0 0.5 

30 15.0 0.0 20.0 0.0 

31 17.5 0.5 210 0.0 

32 15.5 0.5 17.0 0.0 

33 13.0 0.5 16-5 0.5 

34 8.5 6.0 17.5 0.5 

35 11.5 0.5 18.0 2.5 

36 14.5 0.5 19.5 0.0 

37 18.0 00 23.5 0.5 

38 24.0 0.0 31.5 1.0 

39 14.0 0.5 21.5 1.0 

40 15.5 1.0 18.5 0.5 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 41 

An inspection of Tables II and III shows the differences in 
performance between the subjects of the control group and 
those of the practice group. While performance is recorded 
in cancellations and errors, yet a discussion of change in per- 
formance requires that errors be treated with respect to their 
accompanying cancellation scores. When this is done, we can 
say whether a subject has changed not only in speed of cancel- 
lation but in per cent, of accuracy. Attention is directed to 
the fact that the change in the control group in both speed and 
accuracy measures the progress due to direct practice in the 
tests themselves. Therefore, whatever differences we may 
note between the performance of the practice group and that 
of the control group must be due to the transfer effects of the 
training in the practice series. While a complete discussion 
and explanation of the transfer effects is reserved for the next 
chapter, yet it may prove of interest to the reader to consider 
briefly some of the differences between the two groups without 
attempting to draw final conclusions. Such a study will indicate 
what one may reasonably expect when the data are more elab- 
orately treated. 

In the Spanish a — t Word Test 80 per cent, of the control 
group and 72 per cent, of the practice group gained in both 
speed and accuracy. Fifteen per cent, of the control and 28 
per cent, of the practice lost in accuracy while gaining in speed. 
The gains of the control group range from 5.5 cancellations to 
a loss of 0.5, and those of the practice group from 5.0 to 14.0. 
In the Spanish e — s Word Test, on the other hand, 40 per cent, 
of the control and 8 per cent, of the practice gained in both 
speed and accuracy, while 5 per cent, of the control and 16 
per cent, of the practice lost in both. Twenty-two per cent, of 
the control and 61 per cent, of the practice lost in accuracy 
while gaining in speed. Five per cent, of the control and 11 per 
cent, of the practice lost in accuracy without changing in 
speed. It is significant that only 32 per cent, of the control 
and 88 per cent, of the practice lost in accuracy, while 62 per 
cent, of the control and 69 per cent, of the practice gained in 
speed. 

In the a and t Letter Test 60 per cent, of the control and 80 
per cent, of the practice gained in both speed and accuracy, 
while 2.5 per cent, of the control and none of the practice lost 
in both. Thirty per cent, of the control and 16 per cent, of the 
practice lost in accuracy while gaining in speed. Five per cent, 
of the control and 3 per cent of the practice gained in accuracy 



42 



TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 





W 




dl 




o 




y 


w 


<1 


o 


^ 




> 


« 


<J 


w 






H 



Q Oh 



I> iH tH 



O iH 





o 






< 


fa 

Q 


> 






hJ 


o 




m 


« 


<: 


u 


t» 



s s 



« < 

2 



Oh -h' 






i-H C- 



i-H 00 



CO T-H 



(N tH 



•r^-tj'P -r: m'P 



ft > 
r/5 >^ 



C 

P. > 












'Em s o c 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 43 

while losing in speed. In the e and s Letter Test 67.5 per cent, 
of the control and 30.5 per cent, of the practice gained in both 
speed and accuracy, while 2.5 per cent of the control and 25 
per cent, of the practice lost in both. Seventeen and five-tenths 
per cent, of the control and 33.3 per cent, of the practice lost in 
accuracy, while gaining in speed. Twelve and five-tenths per 
cent, of the control and 11 per cent, of the practice lost in speed 
while gaining in accuracy. The reader will note that 85 per 
cent, of the control and 63.8 per cent, of the practice gained in 
speed while 20 per cent of the control and 58.3 per cent of the 
practice lost in accuracy. 

In the Columbia A Test 72.5 per cent, of the control and 67 
per cent, of the practice gained in both speed and accuracy. 
Twenty-two and five-tenths per cent, of the control and 33 per 
cent, of the practice lost in accuracy while gaining in speed. In 
the Thorndike B Test 57.5 per cent, of the control and 33 per 
cent, of the practice gained in both speed and accuracy, while 
5 per cent, of each group lost in both. Thirty-two and five- 
tenths per cent, of the control and 61 per cent, of the practice 
lost in accuracy, while gaining in speed. Attention is called 
to the fact that only 37.5 per cent, of the control, and 66 per 
cent, of the practice lost in accuracy. 

In the Number Group Checking Test 75 per cent, of the con- 
trol and 42 per cent, of the practice gained in both speed and 
accuracy, while none of the control and 6 per cent, of the prac- 
tice lost in both. Twenty-five per cent, of the control and 50 
per cent, of the practice lost in accuracy while gaining in speed. 

Table IV is derived from Table II and shows the average 
performance in speed and accuracy of the practice group in the 
initial and final test series. The seven tests are listed in the 
first column. Under "Initial Test Series" are four columns ; 
the numbers in the first indicate the average number of cancel- 
lations per minute, while the numbers in the second represent 
the corresponding probable errors ; in the third and fourth col- 
umns the corresponding average per cents, of accuracy with 
their probable errors are presented. The fou^' columns under 
"Final Test Series" are similarly arranged. Under "Differ- 
ences" there are four columns. The first contains the differ- 
ences between the final averages and the initial averages, while 
the corresponding probable errors are in the second column. 
The third column contains the differences between the final and 
initial per cents, of accuracy, with the corresponding probable 
errors in the fourth column. 



44 



TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 



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MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 45 

The table reads thus: In the Spanish a — t Word Test the 
practice group has an initial average performance of 10.03 
cancellations per minute with a probable error of 0.15, and an 
initial average accuracy of 86 per cent, with a probable error 
of 1.23. In the final test series it has an average performance 
of 18.47 cancellations per minute with a probable error of 
0.27, and an average accuracy of 92 per cent., with a probable 
error of 0.63. The gain of the practice group is 8.44 cancella- 
tions per minute, with a probable error of 0.31, and in accuracy 
6 per cent., with a probable error of 1.38. The data for the 
other tests are read in the same manner. 

Table V is derived from Table III and shows the average 
performance in speed and accuracy of the control group in the 
initial and final test series. It is constructed in exactly the. 
same manner as Table IV. 



CHAPTER III. 
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 

The transfer effects of the practice are to be sought in the 
superiority or inferiority of the practice group to the control 
group in each of the seven tests, for it is a vahd assumption 
that the practice group made equally as much improvement 
because of the direct practice in the tests themselves as the 
control group. Consequently, whatever difference there may 
be between the performances of the two groups must be due 
to transfer effects. In this investigation there are three 
measures of performance ; one measures the speed of cancella- 
tion, another the accuracy of cancellation and the third, the 
gross speed (ground covered or total number of cancella- 
tions and errors.) Accuracy of cancellation and speed of can- 
cellation are different and should be treated separately. Some 
have sought to eliminate errors by arbitrarily penalizing for 
them; others have simply ignored them. To do either is to 
ignore the facts in the case. The writer is fully convinced that 
such procedure would be unscientific in this investigation, for 
the very truth he is seeking here would be obscured thereby. 
An exact evaluation of performance requires measures of the 
characteristics by which performance is manifested, and fur- 
ther, that these measures be treated separately. In all of the 
tests and in all of the practice, involved in this investigation, 
the materials were carefully scored for both speed of cancella- 
tion and accuracy of cancellation. Consequently, in discussing 
the transfer effects of practice as revealed in the superiority 
or inferiority of the practice group the writer is prepared to 
indicate whether the superiority or inferiority is one of speed 
of cancellation or of accuracy of cancellation, or of gross speed, 
or any two or more of these characteristics of performance. 

While the writer was primarily engaged in investigating 
the transfer effects of the practice and not the practice j^ei' se, 
yet the practice was conducted with the utmost caution 
and the highest regard for scientific results. The thirty-six 

46 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 47 

subjects practiced diligently for four 10-minute periods a day 
for 16 days under conditions and with incentives highly favor- 
able to improvement. It is well to keep in mind in what the 
practice consisted. Only words containing a and t were to be 
cancelled. All other words and letters were to be neglected. 
Therefore, strengthening the habit of cancelling a — t words 
nieant strengthening the habit of neglecting to cancel all other 
words. The stimuli to reaction were a — t words irregularly 
distributed amongst numerous other words; the reaction con- 
sisted in recognition of the stimuli and the cancellation of the 
same. The improvement as measured in terms of speed and 
accuracy of performance indicates progress in both recogni- 
tion and cancellation. 

By reference to Table I in the preceding chapter the reader 
may observe the changes of the practice group in measures of 
speed and accuracy in the practice series. From the first period 
to the sixty-fourth period the group advanced from an average 
performance of 102.6 cancellations per period and an accuracy 
of 79 per cent., to an average performance of 266.5 cancella- 
tions per period and an accuracy of 96 per cent. No matter 
how the improvement is estimated, whether from the first 
period to the sixty-fourth or from the first day to the sixteenth, 
or from the first two days to the last two days, the group ex- 
hibits marked improvement of performance, as measured in 
terms of either speed or accuracy of cancellation or both. 

Section I. Transfer Effects in Terms of Speed and Accuracy 
of Performance. 

The data to be discussed in Sections 1 and 2 will be found 
in Table VI, which shows the relation between the progress 
of the two groups. It is constructed as follows: In the first 
column the tests are listed ; the numbers in the second column 
indicate the superiority of the practice group in gross speed, 
(all minus signs indicate inferiority of the practice group), in 
the third column the superiority in speed of cancellation is in- 
dicated, with the corresponding probable errors in the fourth 
column. The numbers in the fifth column indicate superiority 
in speed of cancellation in terms of per cent, of initial per- 
formance. The numbers in the sixth column represent superi- 
ority in per cent, of accuracy, with the corresponding probable 
errors in the seventh column. The eighth and ninth columns 
indicate superiority in performance when one is subtracted 
for each error (mostly omissions) . 



48 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

TABLE VL 

SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN PROGRESS OF PRACTICE GROUP AND CON- 
TROL GROUP IN THE TEST SERIES 

(The gains of the control group are subtracted from those of the practice group 
Minus signs indicate inferiority of the practice group.) 

SPEED PENALIZED 
SPEED ACCURACY FOR ERRORS 

% Init. Net % Init. 

Gross Net P.E. Perform- % P.E. Efficiency Perform. 



Spanish 

a-t 
Words 


6.74 


6.44 


0.38 


67 


1 


1-92 


6.12 


74 


Letters 
a and t 


3.25 


4.91 


1.25 


15 


6 


1.30 


6.62 


28 


Capital 
A 


4.53 


3.99 


1.39 


10 


-1 


0.62 


3.50 


10 


Capital 
B 

Number 
Group 
4 and 7 


2.13 

2.46 


1.13 
1.08 


0.93 
0.83 


5 

7 


-3 

-7 


1.06 
1.13 


0.14 
-0.32 


.7 
2 


Letters 
e and s 


-2.94 


-3.89 


1-78 


-9 


-3 


0.75 


-4.79 


-13 


Spanish 

e-s 
Words 


3.32 


0.02 


0.36 


2 


-16 


2.11 


-3-28 


-33 



The table reads thus: In the Spanish a — t Word Test the 
practice group has a superiority in gross speed of 6.74 words 
per minute, and 6.44 cancellations per minute, with a probable 
error of 0.38, which in terms of initial performance is 67 per 
cent. In accuracy of performance the superiority is 1 per cent, 
with a probable error of 1.92. When one is subtracted for each 
error, the superiority is 6.12, which is 74 per cent, of the ini- 
tial performance. The other tests are to be read in the same 
manner. 

The results may be expressed in a different way as shown 
in Table VII, which is derived directly from Tables II and III. 
The table shows the percentage of the practice group reaching 
or exceeding the average performance of the control group in 
both speed and accuracy of cancellation. It reads thus: In 
the Spanish a — t Word Test 69 per cent, of the practice group 
reached or exceeded the average speed of the control group in 
the initial test, and 100 per cent, in the final test; while 66 per 
cent, reached or exceeded the average accuracy of the control 
group in the initial test, and 64 per cent, in the final test. The 
other tests are to be read in the same manner. The reader will 



MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE. 



49 



observe that the results as expressed in Table VII are in har- 
mony with the results as expressed in Table VI. Consequently 
the discussion which follows will be based on the data as 
treated in Table VI. 



TABLE VII. 

SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE PRACTICE AND THE CONTROL GROUP 

IN TERMS OF THE PER CENT. OF THE PRACTICE GROUP REACHING 

OR EXCEEDING THE AVERAGE OF THE CONTROL GROUP 



Tests 



Percent of Practice Group 
reaching or exceeding Av. 
Speed of Control Group 
Initial Final 

100 



75 
75 
64 
55 



Spanish 




a-t 
Words 


69 


Letters 




aand t 


61 


Capital 
A 


69 


Capital 
B 


58 


Number 




Group 

4 and 7 


50 


Letters 




6 and s 


64 


Spanish 




e-s 
Words 


64 



Percent, of Practice Group 
reaching or exceeding Av. 
Per cent . of Accuracy of 
Control Group 

Initial Final 



39 

58 



66 

36 
77 
66 
80 

55 
55 



64 

69 
72 
50 
33 

25 
5 



1. The first test is known as the Spanish a— t Word Test. 
It consisted of a paragraph of Spanish prose in which all words 
containing both a and t were to be cancelled. The stimuli de- 
termining the reaction in this test were not exactly the same 
as the stimuli determining the reaction in the practice series. 
The essential elements which had to be recognized and thus 
determine the cancelling were the same, but in Spanish words 
instead of English, and these in a Spanish context. In the ini- 
tial test the practice group has the same speed of cancellation 
as in the first period of the practice series but a higher per- 
centage of accuracy. However, in the final test neither the 
speed nor the accuracy of performance is as high as in the 
final practice period. This seems to indicate that in the be- 
ginning the cancelling in English prose was slightly more difl?i- 



50 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

cult than the cancelling in Spanish, while with prolonged prac- 
tice the English a — t words become more familiar and accord- 
ingly more quickly cancelled. An examination of the practice 
material reveals the presence of many long and unusual a — t 
words. The fact that the subjects were very young and for 
the most part sons of foreign born parents explains their lack 
of familiarity with many of these English a — t words. Possibly 
then, the difference in accuracy may be explained by the fact 
that when one is cancelling prose in his own language, he 
tends at first to read the words, and just as his reading is 
impeded by the presence of unfamiliar words, so his accuracy 
of cancellation is interfered with. At any rate, the effects of 
practice in recognizing and cancelling a — t words in English 
was sufficient to give the practice group a decided superiority 
in the Spanish a — t Test. With an initial average performance 
of 10.03 cancellations per minute it has a superiority in im- 
provement of 6.44 cancellations per minute, (P. E., 0.38) with 
neither superiority nor inferiority in the percentage of accur- 
acy. The average initial performance of the two groups was 
9.63 cancellations per minute. Therefore, the superiority of 
the practice group is 67 per cent, of the average initial per- 
formance of the two groups. When one considers that the 
practice group improved from the first period to the sixty- 
fourth in the practice series 159 per cent, in cancelling and 17 
per cent, in accuracy ; a superiority of 67 per cent, in cancell- 
ing is not so great in a test where the essential elements de- 
termining the cancelling were the same as those determining 
the cancelling in the practice series. 

The results of this test are presented in graphic form in 
Figure V. The numbers along the vertical axis, both above 
and below the horizontal axis, represent the number of cases, 
while those along the horizontal to the right represent the 
cancellation records, and to the left error records. The graphs 
above the horizontal represent the performances of the prac- 
tice group, while those below show the corresponding per- 
formances of the control group. The initial performance is 
indicated by continous lines and fi}ial perforynance by dotted 
lines. If one wishes to compare the speed of the practice group 
in the initial and final tests, he will compare the continuous 
curve with the dotted curve in the upper right quadrant ; if one 
wishes to note the accuracy in the same way, he will compare 
the continuous curve with the dotted curve in the upper left 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 



51 



quadrant. If one wishes to note the performance of the con- 
trol group, he will consult the lower right quadrant for change 
in speed and the lower left quadrant for change in accuracy. 

The performances of each group in each of the other tests 
are shown in graphic form in Figures VI to XI, which are con- 
structed in exactly the same manner as Figure V. 



Errors 



n 



S p e e A 



m 



j^ 



1 



L.J 



/sit/ 



n It If IS 11 Xi Ji x a Jt 



tXJ 



Xn 



RT 



Figure V — Showing the Relation Between the Practice and Control 
Groups in the Spanish a — t Word Test. 

2. The second test is known as the Spanish e — s Word 
Test. It consisted in canceUing in Spanish prose all words 
containing e and s. The essential elements which determined 
the cancelling in this test were among the elements to be 
neglected in the practice series, while the essential elements 
which determined the cancelling in the practice series were 
among the elements to be neglected in this test. In the prac- 
tice only the a — t words were to be cancelled, while the e — s 
words along with all other words were to be neglected. In this 
test only e — s words were to be cancelled, while a — t words 



52 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

along with all other words were to be neglected. With an in- 
itial average performance of 11.14 cancellations per minute, 
and an accuracy of 92 per cent., the practice group advanced 
to a final average performance of 12.54 cancellations per min- 
ute and decreased in accuracy to 76 per cent. With an initial 
average performance of 10.62 cancellations per minute, and an 
accuracy of 93 per cent., the control group advanced to a final 
average performance of 12.00 cancellations per minute, with 
no change in the per cent, of accuracy. In average perfor- 
mance as measured by the increase in the number of cancel- 
lations per minute there was no difference between the two 
groups. The practice was without efl'ect so far as actual can- 
cellations were concerned, for the two groups made the same 
improvement in speed of performance as measured by the in- 
crease in the number of cancellations per minute. In this test 
we see the importance of keeping the two characteristics of 
performance— speed and accuracy of cancellation— separate, 
for the transfer effects of practice are exhibited in the mani- 
fest inferiority of the practice group in accuracy of perfor- 
mance, which was 16 per cent. If we should arbitrarily cor- 
rect for errors, the results would indicate an inferiority in 
speed of cancellation. But just how much inferiority in speed 
of cancellation corresponds to a loss of 16 per cent, in accuracy 
in this particular test no one knows at the present time. In 
this test it is probably large. However, the question arises: 
After prolonged practice in cancelling in English prose a— t 
words and neglecting e— s words along with all other words, 
could the group maintain its initial per cent, of accuracy when 
the task was cancelling e— s words in Spanish prose and ne- 
glecting a— t words along with all other words ? The practice 
group had learned in actual experience the importance of ac- 
curacy as well as speed, and had acquired considerable accuracy 
as well as speed in cancelling a— t words in English, as revealed 
in its progress in the practice series. In only one test does it 
have a superiority in accuracy of performance, and that is the 
letter test, in which the letters a and t were to be cancelled. 
There is an interesting contrast between the performances of 
the practice group in the Spanish word tests. In the Spanish 
a— t Word Test it exhibits a superiority in speed of cancella- 
tion, while in the Spanish e— s Word Test it exhibits an in- 
feriority in accuracy. In one test it gains as much in accuracy 
as the control group and has a decided superiority in speed of 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 



53 



cancellation ; in the other it gains as much in speed of cancella- 
tion as the control group and has a decided inferiority in ac- 
curacy. In these two tests there is undoubted evidence of 
transfer. In the Spanish a — t Word Test the transfer effects 
are positive, appearing as facilitation. On the other hand, in 
the Spanish e — s Word Test the transfer effects are negative, 
appearing as interference. The conditions favoring facilita- 
tion are plainly evident. There v/as nothing in the test situa- 



trrors 

o 

r-1 ! ''■• — '■ bfr—i 




-•- 


1 — 


SpeeA 

i 

t—T-H 


— 


n 


— 




n !<. tt 11 li 13. II K i 1 r i s i : 1 1 n 


,, ; |- i /.) » ;j /; /Y ;y /< // /f /^ A» J' 


tu ■■■■'' i i 






-H.r' ^^ 


=3 

o 

-J 

£= 
O 






i 

t 



-*-l 


... 



Figure VI — Showing the Relation Between the Practice and Control 
Groups in the Spanish e — s Word Test. 

tion presented in the Spanish a — t Word Test to be cancelled 
which had to be neglected in the practice situation. The same 
elements in both situations determined the cancelling. Now, 
what were the conditions favoring interference? In what 
respects was the test situation presented in the Spanish e — s 
Word Test unlike the practice situation presented in the prac- 
tice series? Were the two situations alike in any respects? 
The reader is already familiar with the practice situation pre- 



54 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

sented in the practice series. The Spanish e — s Word Test 
situation was like it in that it contained many a — t words, and 
unhke it in being Spanish prose and in the task to be per- 
formed. The elements in the practice situation which the 
group had been trained to cancel were to be neglected; while 
some of the elements in the practice situation which it had 
been trained to neglect were now to be cancelled. 

The graphic representation of the results of this test are 
shown in Figure VI, which is constructed in the same way as 
Figure V. 

3. The third test is called the a and t Letter Test. The 
test situation consisted in a distribution of small letters, and 
the task consisted in cancelling the letters a and t. The prac- 
tice group advanced from an average initial performance of 
27.45 cancellations per minute and an accuracy of 87 per cent., 
to a final average performance of 37.35 cancellations per min- 
ute and an accuracy of 94 per cent. In the same test the con- 
trol group advanced from an average initial performance of 
26.00 cancellations per minute and an accuracy of 92 per cent., 
to a final average performance of 30.99 cancellations per 
minute and an accuracy of 93 per cent. The practice group 
gained 9.90 cancellations per minute with a probable error of 
0.99, and in accuracy 7 per cent with a probable error of 1.02. 
The control group gained 4.99 cancellations per minute with a 
probable error of 0.77, and in accuracy 1 per cent, with a pro- 
able error of 0.81. Consequently, the practice group has a su- 
periority of 4.91 cancellations per minute with a probable er- 
ror of 1.25, and in accuracy 6 per cent, with a probable er- 
ror of 1.30. The average of the initial performances in can- 
cellation of the two groups is 26.72 per minute. In terms of 
this initial average, the superiority of the practice group is 
15 per cent. Accordingly, the transfer effects of the practice 
are positive, appearing as facilitation in both speed of cancella- 
tion and accuracy of performance. There were no elements to 
be neglected in the test situation which were to be cancelled 
in the practice situation. In the practice situation the pres- 
ence of both a and t in a word determined the canceUing, 
while in the test situation a and t themselves were to be can- 
celled. Thus, instead of cancelling a — t words the letters had to 
be cancelled. This required a slight change in the response. 
However, the differences were very slight compared with the 
similarities, for the essential elements determining the can- 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 



55 



celling were identical in both situations. In the next test the 
conditions are quite different and the results are in contrast 
with the results in the a and t Letter Test. 

These results are shown graphically in Figure VII. 



c_5 



n 



Errors 



h— I I— ■• 



r" 



■^ 



Speed 



±3 



^ M J 5" 



*fc ys_ 






t_S 



-J I. 



w 



Figure VII — Showing the Relation Between the Practice and Control 
Groups in the a and t Letter Test. 



56 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

4. The fourth test is called the e and s Letter Test. The 
test situation was the same as that in the third test — a distri- 
bution of small letters — while the task consisted in cancelling 
the letters e and s, instead of the letters a and t. The practice 
group advanced from an average initial performance of 41.26 
cancellations per minute to a final average performance of 
43.51 cancellations per minute, and decreased in accuracy from 
95 per cent, to 94 per cent. In the same test the control group 
advanced from an average initial performance of 39.00 cancel- 
lations per minute and an accuracy of 96 per cent., to a final 
average performance of 45,14 cancellations per minute and an 
accuracy of 98 per cent. The practice group gained 2.25 can- 
cellations per minute with a probable error of 1.29, and de- 
creased in average accuracy 1 per cent, with a probable error 
of 0.66. The control group gained 6.14 cancellations per min- 
ute with a probable error of 1.23 and in accuracy 2 per cent, 
with a probable error of 0.35. Consequently, the practice group 
has an inferiority of 3.89 cancellations per minute with a prob- 
able error of 1.78 and in average accuracy an inferiority of 3 
per cent, with a probable error of 0.75. The initial average of 
the two groups is 40.40 cancellations per minute. In terms of 
this initial average, the inferiority of the practice group in 
speed of cancellation is 9 per cent. The transfer effects of the 
practice are slightly negative, appearing as interference both 
in speed of cancellation and in accuracy of performance. The 
results in this test are in contrast with the results in the a and 
t letter test. In the two tests the objective situations were 
identical, but the tasks to be performed diff'erent. In the one it 
was the a and t aspect that caused the cancelling, in the other 
the e and s aspect. But the a and t aspect as a cause of can- 
celling had been trained in the practice series, while the e and 
s aspect had been neglected. The attempt to neglect the a 
and t aspect and respond to the e and s aspect resulted in in- 
terference. The results in the two pairs of tests, the Spanish 
a — t and e — s Word Tests and the Letter Tests a and t and e 
and s, indicate clearly the conditions favoring facilitation on 
the one hand and interference on the other. 

The results of this test are represented graphically in 
Figure VIII. 

5. The fifth test is called the Columbia A Test. It con- 
sisted in a distribution of capital letters, and the task to be 
performed consisted in cancelling capital A's. In this test the 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 



57 



Errors ,_, 




Figure VIII — Showing the Relation Between the Practice and Control 
Groups in the e and s Letter Test. 

practice group advanced from an initial average performance 
of 38.33 cancellations per minute and an accuracy of 97 per 
cent., to a final average performance of 51.75 cancellations per 
minute and an accuracy of 98 per cent. In the same test the 
control group advanced from an initial average performance of 



58 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

36.12 cancellations per minute and an accuracy of 97 per cent., 
to a final average performance of 45.55 cancellations per min- 
ute and an accuracy of 99 per cent. The practice group gained 
13.42 cancellations per minute (P. E. 1.07) and in accuracy 1 
per cent. (P. E. 0.46). The control group gained 9.43 cancel- 
lations per minute (P. E. 0.88) and in accuracy 2 per cent. 
(P. E. 0.42). The practice group has a superiority of 3.99 
cancellations per minute, (P. E. 1.39), and in accuracy an in- 
feriority of 1 per cent. (P. E. 0.62). In this test the transfer 
effects are positive, causing a very slight facilitation in the 
speed of cancellation. The initial average performance of the 
two groups was 37.22 cancellations per minute. In terms of 
this average the superiority of the practice group in speed of 
cancellation is 10 per cent. What were the conditions favoring 
transfer? An examination of the practice situation reveals 
very few capital A's. These few were to be neglected only 
when they were in words not containing t. Their appearance 
was so rare that they seldom determined the cancelling or had 
to be neglected. It is, consequently, fair to assume that capi- 
tal A figured rarely in the practice series. If so, then, why 
this slight transfer effect in the capital A Test? Identity in 
name with one of the letters determining the cancelling in the 
practice situation. 

The graphic representation of the results of this test is 
shown in Figure IX. 

6. This test is known as the Thorndike B Test. It con- 
sisted in a distribution of capital letters, and the task consisted 
in cancelling capital B's. The practice group advanced from 
an average initial performance of 20.93 cancellations per min- 
ute to a final average performance of 26.00 cancellations per 
minute, and decreased in accuracy from 96 per cent, to 93 per 
cent. The control group advanced from an initial average per- 
formance of 19.81 cancellations per minute and an accuracy of 
96 per cent, to a final average performance of 23.75 cancella- 
tions per minute, with no change in accuracy. The practice 
group gained in average performance 5.07 cancellations per 
minute (P. E. 0.71), and lost in average accuracy 3 per cent. 
(P. E. 0.87). The control group gained in average perfor- 
mance 3.94 cancellations per minute (P. E. 0.60), with no 
change in accuracy. The practice group has a superiority of 
1.13 cancellations per minute (P. E. 0.93), and an inferiority 
in accuracy of 3 per cent. (P. E. 1.06). It is evident that the 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 



59 






transfer effects in speed of cancellation are not positive, for 
1.13 (P. E. 0.93) is unreliable. However, 3 per cent. (P. E. 
1.06) is fairly reliable and indicative of interference. It may 
be of interest to contrast the capital B Test with the capital 
A Test. In the A Test the practice group has a superiority in 
speed of 3.99 cancellaions per minute with no reliable change 



trcors 




Sljeti 



IS- so ^5 kO 



JS 70 



Figure IX — Showing the Relation Between the Practice and Control 
Groups in the Columbia A Test. 



in accuracy. In the B Test there is no reliable evidence of 
transfer in speed of cancellation, but fairly reliable evidence of 
loss in accuracy. The question arises ; What caused the trans- 
fer effects to appear in the A Test as a slight facilitation and 
in the B Test as a slight interference ? An analysis of the two 



60 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

tests in their relation to the practice situation reveals the con- 
ditions favoring a slight transfer in the one positively, in tlie 
other negatively. In the A Test there were 100 capital A's dis- 
tributed among other capital letters, and among these 15 capi- 
tal T's. In the B Test there were 50 capital B's distributed 
among other capital letters, and among these there were 50 
capital A's and 25 capital T's. In the practice situation, there 
were comparatively few capital B's and numerous small b's 
These were to be neglected whether the same in name or in 
form. In the practice situation there were comparatively few 
capital A's and numerous small a's. These, whether the same 
in form or name, were to be neglected except when in words 
containing t also. When they appeared with t in words, such 
words were to be cancelled. A test situation in which all the 
elements to be neglected were elements to be neglected in the 
practice situation with the exception of a few capital T's, and in 
which the element to be cancelled was the same in name as 
one of the elements to be recognized in the practice situation 
and to determine cancelling when it appeared with t in a word, 
should be more favorable to positive transfer than a test situa- 
tion in which a large number of the elements to be neglected — 
50 capital A's and 25 capital T's — were the elements, identical 
in name and rarely in form, with the elements to be recognized 
in the practice situation and to determine the cancelling, and 
further, in which test situation the element determining the 
cancelling was identical in name and rarely in form with one 
of the elements to be neglected in the practice situation. Thus 
it is seen that conditions in the A Test situation slightly fa- 
vored facilitation while conditions in the B Test situation 
slightly favored interference. 

Figure X is a graphic representation of these results. 

7. The seventh and last test is known as the Woodworth 
and Wells Number Group Checking Test. The task consisted 
in cancelling six-place number-groups containing both 4 and 7. 
The practice group advanced from an average initial perfor- 
mance of 15.51 cancellations per minute to a final average per- 
formance of 20.47 cancellations per minute, and decreased in 
accuracy from 97 per cent, to 92 per cent. The control group 
advanced from an average initial performance of 14.87 cancel- 
lations per minute and an accuracy of 96 per cent, to a final 
average performance of 18.75 cancellations per minute and an 
accuracy of 98 per cent. The practice group gained 4.96 can- 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 



61 



cellations per minute (P. E. 0.70) and decreased in accuracy 
5 per cent (P. E. 0.97). The control group gained 3.88 cancel- 
lations per minute (P. E. 0.44), and 2 per cent, in accuracy 
(P. E. 0.58). The practice group has a superiority in speed of 



[r rocs 









Speed 



.1:^ ^ 






U9 



\ 



Figure X — Showing the Relation Between the Practice and Control 
Groups in the Thorndike B Test. 

1.08 cancellations per minute (P. E. 0.83) and an inferiority 
in accuracy of 7 per cent. (P. E. 1.13). There is no rehable 
evidence of transfer in speed of performance, for 1.08 with a 
P. E. of 0.83 is unreliable. But an inferiority in accuracy of 



62 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

7 per cent. (P. E. 1.13) indicates transfer effects in the form of 
interference. 

What were the relations between the practice situation and 
the situation presented i nthe Number-Group Checking Test 
that favored interference? None of the essential elements de- 
termining the cancelling in the practice situation were present 
in the test situation. In fact, so far as content elements are con- 
cerned, the two situations had nothing in common. Letters in 
letter groups made up the content of the practice situation, 
while the content of the test situation consisted of numbers in 
number groups. It was both a and t in a letter group that de- 
termined the cancelling in the practice situation, while the can- 
celling in the test situation was determined by the presence of 
both 4 and 7 in a number group. While the presence of both 
a and t in a letter group determined the cancelling, yet, it was 
the letter group that was to be cancelled and not the letters. So 
with the presence of 4 and 7. Not 4 or 7, but the number group 
containing both 4 and 7 was to be cancelled. Consequently, 
the two situations were entirely dissimilar as to content ele- 
ments, but somewhat similar and suggestive of likeness in the 
fact that the content elements in both situations were in group 
forms, and while different content elements determined the 
cancelling, yet it was in both situations the group form that 
was to be cancelled. 

Figure XI represents these results graphically. 

Section 2. Transfer Effects in Terms of Gross Speed ; and 
When Arbitrarily Corrected for Errors. 

The results will now be presented and discussed as they 
appear when 1 is subtracted for each error, and also, when 
errors and cancellations are added, to show ground covered or 
gross speed. The writer has previously stated his objections 
to penalizing for errors. However, a presentation of the re- 
sults of such arbitrary procedure will indicate the grounds of 
this objection. In the Spanish a — t Word Test, correcting for 
errors gives the practice group a superiority of 6.12 cancella- 
tions per minute instead of 6.44. Here, correcting makes 
little difference, as each group gains about the same amount in 
percent of accuracy. In gross speed the superiority of the prac- 
tice group is 6.74 words per minute. However, in the Spanish 
e — s Word Test correcting for errors does make a difference, 
for it gives the practice group an inferiority of 3.28 cancella- 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 



63 



tions per minute, when as a matter of fact, both groups made 
equal gains in speed of cancellation, while the practice group 
decreased 16 percent in accuracy. Accepting the corrected 
results would lead to the inference that the transfer effects 



[ r V r s 

:3 


— 


30 

u 

10 

10 

s 
(. 
i 


s 


peed 


1 

: 
, 1 


U' 1 






1 
1 






o 











°- ! 










• ~] J 










f-l ; 1 


1 




< 
) 
1 


« 7 (. y >/ 3 J 10 




f W !^ SO Ji- 30 J5- 


1 1 l^ 




i 
f 

w 
rt 
/r 

30 


1 
1 
1 










1 


r-- ^ 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
















eJ3 




.... 




1 
1 

1 

1 

■ 















Figure XI — Showing the Relation Between the Practice and Control 
Groups in the Woodworth and Wells Number-Group Checking Test. 



64 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

of the practice caused an inferiority in speed of cancellation. 
In gross speed the practice group has a superiority of 3.32 
words per minute. What, then, were the transfer effects in 
this test ? Certainly not an inferiority in speed of cancellation, 
as indicated by the corrected results. Taking the facts as 
they actually occur, we note that the training of the practice 
series caused a superiority in gross speed, and an inferiority 
in percent of accuracy, and no difference in speed of cancel- 
lation. Surely, no one would say that a gross speed of 3.32 
words per minute and an inferiority in accuracy of 16 per- 
cent with no difference in speed of cancellation, means the 
same thing as an inferiority of 3.28 cancellations per minute. 

In the a and t Letter Test, corrected results give the 
practice group a superiority of 6.62 cancellations per minute, 
instead of 4.91 with a superiority of 6 percent in accuracy, 
and in gross speed of 3.25 words per minute. Thus, in this test, 
as in the Spanish e — s Word Test, corrected results tend to con- 
ceal the actual transfer effects of the practice, for instead of 
a superiority in cancellation only, the practice group has a 
superiority in gross speed and in speed and accuracy of can- 
cellation. In the e and s Letter Test, corrected results give 
the practice group an inferiority of 4.79 cancellations per 
minute, while the actual results indicate that the practice 
caused an inferiority, not only in the speed of cancellation, 
but in accuracy of performance and in gross speed. The trans- 
fer effects in these two tests are in contrast whether the 
results are corrected or not. However, it is plainly evident 
that the uncorrected results give a clearer and truer presenta- 
tion of the transfer effects than the corrected results, for 
instead of the practice causing an inferiority of 4.79 cancella- 
tions per minute, it caused an inferiority in gross speed of 
2.94 words per minute, in speed of cancellation 3.98 per min- 
ute, and in accuracy of performance 3 percent. 

Corrected results in the capital A Test indicate that the 
practice group has a superiority of 3.5 cancellations per min- 
ute, while with the uncorrected results it has a superiority of 
3.99. Since there is no reliable difference in the gains in 
accuracy made by the two groups, the transfer effects are 
manifested in speed of cancellation, and in gross speed which 
was 4.53 words per minute. In the capital B test, corrected 
results indicate a superiority of 0.14 cancellations per minute 



/ 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 65 

for the practice group, while uncorrected results give an actual 
though unreliable superiority of 1.13 cancellations, and a reli- 
able inferiority in accuracy of 3 percent. In these two tests 
corrected results indicate positive transfer effects in the Capital 
A Test, and none at all in the Capital B Test. On the other 
hand, the actual results indicate transfer effects in the Capital 
A Test in a superiority of actual cancellations, and in gross 
speed ; and in the Capital B Test an inferiority in accuracy of 
3 percent., and a superiority in gross speed of 2.13 words per 
minute. 

In the Number Group-Checking Test corrected results 
indicate an unreliable inferiority of 0.32 cancellations per min- 
ute, on the part of the practice group, while the actual results 
show a reliable inferiority in accuracy of 7 percent, and in 
gross speed a superiority of 2.46 words per minute. The 
writer feels confident that this presentation and discussion 
of the results of correcting for errors justifies his objection 
to a procedure so arbitrary; a procedure which tends to con- 
ceal the actual transfer effects of the practice. 

Section 3. Summary and Conclusion. 
The transfer effects of the practice are revealed in the 
superiority or inferiority of the practice group. These effects 
may manifest themselves in three ways : In gross speed, that 
is, total ground covered cancellations plus errors ; in speed of 
actual cancellation; and in accuracy of performance. Pro- 
longed practice in cancelling in Enghsh prose words contain- 
ing both a and t resulted in an improvement in gross speed 
from an average of 129.6 words per ten minute period to an 
average of 277.0, or a gain of 113 percent; in speed of can- 
cellation from an average of 102.6 cancellations per period to 
an average of 266.5, or a gain of 159 percent ; and in accuracy 
of cancellation from 79 percent to 96 percent, or a gain of 17 
percent. In gross speed the practice group has a superiority 
in six of the seven tests and an inferiority in one. In speed 
of cancellation the transfer effects that are reliable are posi- 
tive in three tests ; being 67 percent in the Spanish a— t Word 
Test, 15 percent in the a and t Letter Test, and 10 percent in 
the capital A Test ; and negative in one, being 9 percent in the 
e and s Letter Test. In percent of accuracy the transfer effects 
are positive in one test and negative in four tests, and without 



66 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

reliable influence in the other two. In only one test does the 
practice group have a superiority in both speed and accuracy 
of cancellation — the a and t Letter Test; and in only one test 
is it inferior in these two respects — the e and s Letter Test. 
In each of the seven tests there is evidence of the transfer 
effects of the practice, and these are pronounced in four tests ; 
in two there is facilitation and in two there is interference. 
The two Spanish Word Test situations were identical; in the 
one the stimulus provoking cancellation was identical in form 
and content elements with that in the practice situation. 
These were the conditions favoring the largest amount of 
positive transfer or facilitation. In the other, the stimulus 
provoking cancellation was one of the stimuli to be neglected 
in the practice situation, while the practiced stimulus was 
neglected. Such conditions favored interference. The two 
Letter Test situations were identical; in the one the stimuli 
provoking cancellation were identical with the content ele- 
ments of the stimulus cancelled in the practice situation. 
Such conditions favored facilitation. In the other, the stim- 
uli provoking cancellation were unlike the content elements 
of the stimulus cancelled in the practice, and like the content 
elements of many stimuli neglected in the practice. Such con- 
ditions favored interference. In the two Capital Letter Tests 
the situations were somewhat unlike and the tasks different. 
In the Capital A Test the stimulus provoking cancellation was 
the same in name as one of the stimuli determining the can- 
celling in the practice situation. The result was a slight facil- 
itation in the form of speed of cancellation. In the Capital B 
Test, the stimulus provoking cancellation was the same in 
name and rarely in form as one of the stimuli neglected in the 
practice situation, while there were many stimuli to be neg- 
lected that were the same in name and rarely in form as the 
stimuli determining cancelling in the practice situation. The 
result was a slight interference in the form of a decrease in 
accuracy. In the Number Group-Checking Test the stimulus 
provoking the cancellation response was the presence of 4 and 
7 in a number group, while in the practice, it was the presence 
of a and t in a letter group. The result was interference in 
the form of a decrease in accuracy. 

The tendency toward speed acquired through the practice 
was stronger than the tendency toward accuracy, for in six 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. 67 

of the seven tests, the practice group has a superiority in 
gross speed. However, in only three of the six, does this 
gross speed eventuate in faciUtation ; in the other three it is 
accompanied by interference in the form of a decrease in ac- 
curacy ; and in the remaining one was not sufficient to prevent 
a loss in gross speed and in speed of cancellation, but was suf- 
ficient to cause a decrease in accuracy. 

Section 4. Generalized Conclusions. 

In this investigation the writer endeavored to discover 
under what conditions, to what extent, and in what direction, 
prolonged cancelling in one situation affects cancelling in 
other situations. The results justify the following conclu- 
sions : 

1. That the extent and direction of the transfer effects 
depend, first, on the practice situation and the task performed ; 
and second, on the test situation and the task performed. 

2. When the test situation is such that the task per- 
formed is identical with the task in the practice, the extent 
of the transfer effects is largest and in a positive direction 
in the form of speed. 

3. When the test situation is such that the task per- 
formed is the reverse of that performed in the practice, the 
extent of the transfer effects is large, causing interference in 
the form of a decrease in accuracy. 

4. When the test situation is such that the task per- 
formed is identical as to content elements, with that of the 
practice, the extent of the transfer effects is comparatively 
small and in a positive direction, both in speed and accuracy. 

5. When the test situation is such that the task per- 
formed is the reverse as to content elements of that of the 
practice, the transfer effects are small causing interference 
both in speed and accuracy. 

6. When the test situation is such that the task per- 
formed is somewhat similar as to content elements to that of 
the practice, the transfer effects are slightly positive in the 
form of speed. 

7. When the test situation is Kuch that the task per- 
formed is somewhat the reverse as to content elements of that 
in the practice, the transfer effects are slightly negative in 
the form of a decrease in accuracy. 



68 TRANSFER EFFECTS OF PRACTICE. 

8. When the test situation contains none of the content 
elements of the practice situation but is such that the task 
performed is somewhat similar as to form with that of the 
practice, the transfer effects are negative, causing a decrease 
in accuracy. 

9. Finally, this investigation plainly teaches the import- 
ance of scoring for accuracy as well as speed. 



VITA 



Melvin Albert Martin. Born at Petersburg, Virginia, 
October 18, 1871. Early education received in the Public 
Schools of Petersburg and at the Virginia Polytechnic Insti- 
tute A.B., Richmond College, Richmond, Virginia, 1898; 
A M Columbia University, 1905. Special student in the Uni- 
versity of Chicago, 1898-1900; Head Master, Mossy Creek 
Academy, Virginia, 1900-1901; Principal Southside Female 
Institute, Burkeville, Virginia, 1901-1902; professor of Philos- 
ophy and Physics, Woman's College, Richmond, Virginia, 
1902-1904; graduate student, Columbia University, 1904- 
1905- Dean and professor of Philosophy and Education, 
Wom'an's College, Richmond, Virginia, 1905-1913; professor of 
Psychology, in the Summer School of the University of Vir- 
ginia, 1911-14; graduate student, Columbia University, 1913- 
1915; assistant in Psychology, Columbia University, 1914-1915. 



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